Captures of Wild Ceratitis capitata, Bactrocera dorsalis, and Bactrocera cucurbitae (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Traps with Improved Multilure TMR Dispensers Weathered in California.

During 2012­2013, solid Mallet TMR (trimedlure [TML], methyl eugenol [ME], raspberry ketone [RK]) wafers impregnated with DDVP (2, 2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate) insecticide were weathered during summer (8 wk) and winter (12 wk) in five California citrus-growing counties (Kern, Ventura, Orange, Tulare, and Riverside). In addition, TMR wafers without DDVP and with a Hercon Vaportape II insecticidal strip were compared with TMR dispensers with DDVP at Exeter and Riverside. Weathered treatments were shipped every week (overnight delivery) to Hawaii and frozen for a later bioassay in a 1,335-ha coffee plantation near Numila, Kauai Island, HI, where Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel, and melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae Coquillett, were all present. We compared trap captures of the three species, C. capitata, B. dorsalis, and B. cucurbitae, for the five different weathering locations. Captures of C. capitata, B. dorsalis, and B. cucurbitae with Mallet TMR dispensers (with DDVP) were not significantly different for the five locations. Captures with the Mallet TMR dispenser without DDVP and Vaportape were similar to those for Mallet TMR with DDVP, although there were some slight location differences. In conclusion, based on these results, the Mallet TMR dispenser could potentially be used in California habitats where large numbers of detection traps are currently deployed. Use of Vaportape with dispensers would not require them to be registered with US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Dispensers for use as Male Annihilation Technique (MAT) devices will be tested further in Hawaii.

Crop Loss Relationships and Economic Injury Levels for Ferrisia gilli (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Infesting Pistachio in California.

Ferrisia gilli Gullan (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is a new pest in California pistachios, Pistacea vera L. We conducted a 3-yr field study to determine the type and amount of damage caused by F. gilli. Using pesticides, we established gradients of F. gilli densities in a commercial pistachio orchard near Tipton, CA, from 2005 to 2007. Each year, mealybug densities on pistachio clusters were recorded from May through September and cumulative mealybug-days were determined. At harvest time, nut yield per tree (5% dried weight) was determined, and subsamples of nuts were evaluated for market quality. Linear regression analysis of cumulative mealybug-days against fruit yield and nut quality measurements showed no relationships in 2005 and 2006, when mealybug densities were moderate. However, in 2007, when mealybug densities were very high, there was a negative correlation with yield (for every 1,000 mealybug-days, there was a decrease in total dry weight per tree of 0.105 kg) and percentage of split unstained nuts (for every 1,000 mealybug-days, there was a decrease in the percentage of split unstained of 0.560%), and a positive correlation between the percentage of closed kernel and closed blank nuts (for every 1,000 mealybug-days, there is an increase in the percentage of closed kernel and closed blank of 0.176 and 0.283%, respectively). The data were used to determine economic injury levels, showing that for each mealybug per cluster in May there was a 4.73% reduction in crop value associated with quality and a 0.866 kg reduction in yield per tree (4.75%).

Evaluation of Beauveria bassiana for management of citrus thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in California blueberries.

Citrus thrips, Scirtothrips citri (Moulton), is a plant-feeding pest most widely recognized for causing damage to citrus and mango fruits. This insect has broadened its host range to become a significant pest of commercial blueberries grown in the San Joaquin Valley of California. We evaluated Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) for control of citrus thrips in blueberries grown under two watering regimes (drip irrigation with and without overhead sprinklers) and using two fungal formulations (commercially available spores in suspension vs. colonized seed) over two sampling periods, that is, for two 3-d periods after treatment. We found significant differences in thrips densities as a function of water regime treatment and fungal formulation. Thrips levels were reduced significantly with both fungal treatments at 3 d after treatment, but at 6 d, only results with colonized seed differed from the control treatment. These data suggest entomopathogenic fungi might be useful for control of citrus thrips on blueberries in particular situations (in organic production or as a resistance management tool) but that traditional pesticides will likely remain the preferred management option.

Baseline Susceptibility and Evidence of Resistance to Acetamiprid in Gill's Mealybug, Ferrisia gilli Gullan (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).

Gill's mealybug, Ferrisia gilli (Gullan) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), is a major pest of pistachio in California. Insecticide treatment is the primary control method and acetamiprid is widely used to control this pest. However, there have been numerous reports of control failures for F. gilli after field applications of recommended insecticides in recent years. The purpose of this study was to develop a method for routine monitoring of F. gilli susceptibility and quantify current levels of F. gilli susceptibility to acetamiprid. A leaf-dip bioassay method using lima bean leaves was established and baseline susceptibility responses of 5 field populations were determined. Lethal concentrations to kill 50% of population (LC50) for second instar nymphs at 48 h ranged from 0.367 to 2.398 µg(AI)ml-1 of acetamiprid. Similarly, lethal concentrations to kill 90% of population (LC90) for second instar nymphs at 48 h ranged from 2.887 to 10.752 µg(AI)ml-1 of acetamiprid. The F. gilli population collected from Hanford area showed up to 6.5-fold significantly decreased mortality to acetamiprid compared to other populations. The resistance identified in this study, although relatively low, indicates that there has been repeated pressure to select for acetamiprid resistance and resistance levels can further magnify if effective management steps are not taken. The baseline susceptibility established in this study can be used to investigate potential cause of recent acetamiprid failures against F. gilli. In the long-term, results of this study will support the development of resistance management strategies by monitoring shifts in the susceptibility of F. gilli populations.

Selection and validation of reference genes for quantifying gene expression in the Gill's mealybug.

The Gill's mealybug, Ferrisia gilli Gullan, (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) has emerged as a major pest of pistachio in California. Because F. gilli is only relatively recently described, there are no validated reference genes to normalize the expression data from real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in this species. We selected and validated 8 commonly used reference genes (RPS8, TBP, UBQE2, RPL7, RPL5, RPL40, RPLP1, and HEL) for expression stability in F. gilli. These genes were evaluated in 5 different geographical populations of F. gilli collected from organic and conventionally grown pistachio orchards. Candidate reference genes were also evaluated in F. gilli fed with 4 plant hosts: pistachio, almond, grapes, and lima beans. The stability of candidate genes was analyzed using 4 software algorithms: geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and RefFinder. Three genes RPS8, RPL40, and RPL7 encoding for ribosomal proteins were identified as the most stable across the treatments and thus were recommended for normalizing the qRT-PCR data. These findings will support resistance monitoring, molecular toxicology, and functional genomics research in F. gilli.

Seasonal phenology of Ferrisia gilli (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in commercial pistachios.

The mealybug Ferrisia gilli Gullan is a serious new pest of pistachios in California. It was first found near the town of Tulare in the late 1990s and has since spread to orchards in most pistachio-producing regions of the state. The seasonal phenology of F. gilli was evaluated in a commercial pistachio orchard in Tulare County during 2005 and 2006. During both seasons E gilli overwintered as small nymphs and had three complete generations per year. Mealybug population densities were low and remained as immatures in March and April; by late May adult females formed and averaged (+/- SE) 1.3 +/- 0.3 and 1.2 +/- 0.3 per 0.75 m of sample branch in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The first in-season generation occurred from early June through mid-July, with mealybug densities ranging from 17.6 +/- 5.6-26.4 +/- 6.2 mealybugs per 0.75 m sample branch. The second in-season generation occurred from late July through September and had peak densities of 408.6 +/- 93.9 and 182.0 +/- 34.2 mealybugs per branch. In March and April mealybugs were located primarily on the buds and branch wood; in May the population was on branch wood as well as the rachis; from June through September the population was located primarily in the pistachio cluster. F. gilli's seasonal phenology described herein was used to develop a management program.

Evaluation of monitoring traps for Drosophila suzukii (Diptera: Drosophilidae) in North America.

Drosophila suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae), a recent invasive pest of small and stone fruits, has been detected in more than half of the U.S. states, and in Canada, Mexico, and Europe. Upon discovery, several different trap designs were recommended for monitoring. This study compared the trap designs across seven states/provinces in North America and nine crop types. Between May and November 2011, we compared a clear cup with 10 side holes (clear); a commercial trap with two side holes (commercial); a Rubbermaid container with mesh lid and rain tent (Haviland), and with 10 side holes and no tent (modified Haviland); a red cup with 10 side holes (red); and a white container with mesh lid and rain tent (Van Steenwyk). Although fly catches among traps varied per site, overall, the Haviland trap caught the most D. suzukii, followed by the red, Van Steenwyk, and clear trap. The modified Haviland and commercial trap had low captures. Among five crop types in Oregon, a clear cup with mesh sides (Dreves) also was tested and caught the most flies. Traps with greater entry areas, found in mesh traps, caught more flies than traps with smaller entry areas. In terms of sensitivity and selectivity, traps that caught more flies likewise caught flies earlier, and all traps caught 26-31% D. suzukii out of the total Drosophila captured. Future trap improvements should incorporate more entry points and focus on selective baits to improve efficiency and selectivity with regard to the seasonal behavior of D. suzukii.

Evaluation of Sticky Traps for Monitoring Scolothrips sexmaculatus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and Stethorus punctum (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) as Predators of Spider Mites in California Almonds.

Changes in almond production practices have caused sixspotted thrips, Scolothrips sexmaculatus Pergande, and the coccinellid beetle, Stethorus punctum LeConte, to replace phytoseiid mites as the dominant predators of spider mites in California almonds. We conducted a series of field studies to evaluate nine commercially available adhesive traps for S. sexmaculatus and S. punctum and found that the yellow strip trap was the most effective, least expensive, and easy to use. At peak population levels, individual cards routinely caught >1,000 S. sexmaculatus and >100 S. punctum trap-1 week-1. We documented that larger traps collected more S. sexmaculatus, and more S. sexmaculatus per square area, suggesting that the trap surface was attractive. We determined the number of traps needed to have 50, 70, and 90% confidence that the averages of trap captures were within 10, 30, and 50% of the population mean. Two yellow strip traps per orchard provided 90% confidence that trap captures were within 50% of the population mean if there were an average of 16.0 S. sexmaculatus trap-1 week-1 or 7.9 S. punctum trap-1 week-1. Populations required to attain the same levels of confidence using four traps per orchard were 3.9 S. sexmaculatus and 2.9 S. punctum trap-1 week-1. We conclude that use of the yellow strip trap to monitor for natural enemies, in combination with leaf samples for spider mites, has the potential to improve integrated pest management programs for spider mites, and assist future research to understand the biology and phenology of both predator species.

Field Biology of Scolothrips sexmaculatus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) as a Predator of Tetranychus pacificus (Acari: Tetranychidae) in California Almonds.

Biological control of tetranychid spider mites in California almonds has predominantly been associated with predatory mites in the family Phytoseiidae. However, changes in production practices, including shifts to more sustainable chemical control programs, have resulted in a trophic shift leading to the predominance of six-spotted thrips, Scolothrips sexmaculatus Pergande, as the primary mite predator. Over a 3-yr period, we studied S. sexmaculatus biology and relationship to Tetranychus pacificus McGregor in almond orchards in the southern San Joaquin Valley of California. Scolothrips sexmaculatus had two periods of activity in response to increases in T. pacificus density, one in the spring and one in the summer. Sex ratios were consistently skewed to more than 90% females captured on yellow sticky traps, with females producing eggs from May to October. Female thrips were larger than males, and both sexes were larger from June to September when temperatures were warmer and food was more abundant. In response to spider mite outbreaks, S. sexmaculatus increased from approximately 2/trap/wk to an average of 1,272/trap/wk over a 5-wk period, representing a population doubling time of 4.0 d. Over this time, we described trends in T. pacificus and S. sexmaculatus density that are consistent with population regulation through predator-prey relationships by a specialist predator.

Treatment Thresholds for Tetranychus pacificus (Acari: Tetranychidae) in California Almonds Based on Monitoring for the Natural Enemy Scolothrips sexmaculatus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae).

Optimization of integrated pest management for Pacific spider mite, Tetranychus pacificus McGregor, in California almonds requires that miticide applications be delayed as long as possible to promote biological control, while still occurring before exponential mite increases cause defoliation. We used data from twelve untreated almond orchards between 2006 and 2019 to determine that decisions to treat T. pacificus should be made on the first monitoring date with 1.4 mites per leaf (38.1% of leaves infested) to ensure that miticide applications are made prior to reaching the treatment threshold of 5.4 per leaf an average of 4.7 d later. Modifications to this threshold based on biological control were made using capture rates of sixspotted thrips, Scolothrips sexmaculatus Pergande, on yellow adhesive traps from 14 almond orchards between 2016 and 2019. Data showed that T. pacificus density remained unchanged when there were 0.42 S. sexmaculatus per trap per week for every one T. pacificus per leaf. For orchards where T. pacificus density has exceeded action and treatment thresholds, we developed a less accurate, but more practical, model that does not require counting mites on leaves. On average, T. pacificus density remained unchanged for seven and 14 d if there were an average of five and three S. sexmaculatus per trap per week, respectively. Growers who adopt the action and treatment thresholds presented herein have the potential to avoid unnecessary miticide use, maximize reliance on biological control, and promote the long-term sustainability of California's almond industry.

Management of Navel Orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Using Four Commercial Mating Disruption Systems in California Almonds.

The navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker), is the most significant pest of California almonds. Direct feeding on the kernel by the larvae causes reductions in salable crop, crop quality, and exportability. Pheromone mating disruption (MD) targeting navel orangeworm is a relatively new technique with the potential to improve management. In 2017, we used replicated ~16-ha plots to compare the efficacy of four commercial MD systems (CheckMate, Cidetrak, Isomate, and Semios) for their relative impacts on the number of navel orangeworm in monitoring traps and crop quality. From 2017 to 2018, we conducted nine direct comparison studies in 16 to 40 ha almond orchards to compare conventional pest management programs to programs incorporating pheromone MD systems. Across all studies, MD reduced male moth captures in pheromone traps by >94%. In the efficacy study, use of mating disruption led to 35% and 53% reductions in kernel damage in Nonpareil and pollinizer cultivars, respectively, and an average increase in crop value of $370 ha-1. In the direct comparison, kernel damage to Nonpareil and pollinizer cultivars was reduced by 65% and 78%, respectively, resulting in an average increase in crop value of $357 ha-1. Economic analyses showed that increases in crop returns exceeded the costs of implementing MD systems with the break-even point ranging from 0.86 to 1.06% of kernel damage. These results suggest that adding MD to an existing navel orangeworm management program is a cost-effective way to reduce damage while promoting sustainable pest management practices.

Pheromone Deployment Strategies for Mating Disruption of a Vineyard Mealybug.

The mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Signoret), is a primary vineyard pest in California and other grape-growing regions throughout the World. Mating disruption programs are commercially available to manage Pl. ficus, but widespread adoption has been limited, in part, by high costs compared with insecticide programs. To improve mating disruption economic effectiveness, different deployment technologies (passive, aerosol, and microencapsulated formulations) were individually examined. Adult male Pl. ficus captures in pheromone traps and categorical ratings of vine infestation or crop damage suggest that all deployment strategies lowered mealybug densities or damage. Using passive dispensers, deployment rates of 310 and 465 per ha lowered Pl. ficus crop damage similar to 615 per ha, a rate commonly used in commercial operations; reduced rates would lower product and deployment costs. Meso dispensers, containing more a.i., deployed at 35 per ha did not have a treatment impact, but a microencapsulated formulation and aerosol canisters lowered male flight captures and/or crop damage. Male mealybug flight activity was greatest from 0500-1100 hr, which coincided with temperatures >16° and <32°C. These restricted times and temperatures suggest programable dispensers might allow pheromone deployment to coincide only with flight patterns. A large field trial using passive dispensers found greater treatment separation after 3 yr of pheromone deployment. Discrepancies in results among vineyards may be related to Pl. ficus density, but combined results from all trials suggest that different deployment technologies can be used to impact Pl. ficus densities and damage, even at reduced rates, especially with continued use over multiple seasons.

Reduced Susceptibility of Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) to Commonly Applied Insecticides.

Pest management for the glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis Germar (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), in Kern County, California relies on the application of insecticides. These treatments have contributed to low H. vitripennis field counts since applications were initiated in 2001. However, densities have been high in recent years despite continued management, prompting efforts to evaluate the susceptibility of current populations to insecticides. H. vitripennis adults were subjected to bioassays with five commonly applied insecticides, and the results were compared to baseline toxicities determined in 2002. Two neonicotinoids, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam, were evaluated using systemic uptake bioassays. Contact toxicities of the neonicotinoid acetamiprid and pyrethroids bifenthrin and fenpropathrin were estimated using leaf dip bioassays. Dose-mortality responses were analyzed by probit analysis. For each compound, there was no significant difference in annual LC50 values determined over 2 yr. Compared to baseline toxicities, acetamiprid and bifenthrin were found to be significantly less toxic to H. vitripennis. The LC50 values of these two compounds increased sevenfold and 152-fold, respectively. Tests with the neonicotinoids revealed a trend of decreasing susceptibility levels within each season followed by reversion back to early season LC50 estimates in the following year. In addition, data showed seasonal and site variation in susceptibility to imidacloprid, possibly due to differential applications in nearby fields.

Chemical Degradation of TMR Multilure Dispensers for Fruit Fly Detection Weathered Under California Climatic Conditions.

Degradation models for multilure fruit fly trap dispensers were analyzed to determine their potential for use in large California detection programs. Solid three-component male lure TMR (trimedlure [TML], methyl eugenol [ME], raspberry ketone [RK]) dispensers impregnated with DDVP (2, 2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate) insecticide placed inside Jackson traps were weathered during summer (8 wk) and winter (12 wk) in five citrus-growing areas. Additionally, TMR wafers without DDVP, but with an insecticidal strip, were compared to TMR dispensers with DDVP. Weathered dispensers were sampled weekly and chemically analyzed. Percent loss of TML, the male lure for Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) Mediterranean fruit fly; ME, the male lure for Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), oriental fruit fly; RK, the male lure for Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett), melon fly; and DDVP was measured. Based on regression analyses for the male lures, TML degraded the fastest followed by ME. Degradation of the more chemically stable RK was discontinuous, did not fit a regression model, but followed similar seasonal patterns. There were few location differences for all three male lures and DDVP. Dispensers degraded faster during summer than winter. An asymptotic regression model provided a good fit for % loss (ME, TML, and DDVP) for summer data. Degradation of DDVP in TMR dispensers was similar to degradation of DDVP in insecticidal strips. Based on these chemical analyses and prior bioassay results with wild flies, TMR dispensers could potentially be used in place of three individual male lure traps, reducing costs of fruit fly survey programs. Use of an insecticidal tape would not require TMR dispensers without DDVP to be registered with US-EPA.

Impact of Citrus Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on the Growth and Productivity of Southern Highbush Blueberries in California.

Citrus thrips, Scirtothrips citri (Moulton), is a foliage-feeding pest of blueberries in the San Joaquin Valley of California. We conducted a 4-yr field study to determine the type and amount of damage caused by this species. Using pesticides, we established gradients of citrus thrips in commercial blueberry fields near Richgrove, CA, in the fall of 2006, 2007, 2009, and 2014. Thrips densities were evaluated weekly for ∼1 mo to determine cumulative thrips-days and correlate levels with the average length of new growth. During all four years of the study, there were significant negative correlations between thrips-days and shoot length (for every 100 thrips-days over a period of 4-5 wk there were reductions in the length of new shoot growth of 0.41 to 2.45 cm, 6.4-10.3%). During the spring following each trial, we evaluated the impact of thrips-days on blueberry yield and quality. During the 2006 trial, there was a significant negative correlation between thrips-days and yield as well as the number of berries per plant, but no yield effect was observed in the other three years of the study. No impacts on fruit quality were found any year. A discussion of the complexity of economic injury levels in blueberries is provided, especially considering that the cost of spraying for citrus thrips (estimated at US$150/ha) is almost irrelevant given crop values often in excess of US$100,000/ha.

Hot-water treatments for control of Planococcus ficus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on dormant grape cuttings.

Hot-water immersions were tested for control of mealybug Planococcus ficus (Signoret), on dormant grape cuttings used for nursery stock. A range of hot-water temperatures (47-58 degrees C) were evaluated at immersion periods of 2, 5, 10, or 20 min, by using a total of 353,720 mealybugs across all treatments. A 5-min immersion at 51 degrees C is effective in killing > 99% of P. ficus. At or above this immersion period and temperature, there was no difference in mealybug stage mortality. We evaluated a commercial operation, which used a 5-min immersion in each of three water tanks: preheating (30.0 +/- 3 degrees C), hot-water (52.8 +/- 0.3 degrees C), and cooling (23 +/- 3 degrees C). The commercial procedure provided 99.8-100% mealybug control in each of three separate trials.

Trap designs for monitoring Drosophila suzukii (Diptera: Drosophilidae).

Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura), an invasive pest of small and stone fruits, has been recently detected in 39 states of the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Europe. This pest attacks ripening fruit, causing economic losses including increased management costs and crop rejection. Ongoing research aims to improve the efficacy of monitoring traps. Studies were conducted to evaluate how physical trap features affect captures of D. suzukii. We evaluated five colors, two bait surface areas, and a top and side position for the fly entry point. Studies were conducted at 16 sites spanning seven states and provinces of North America and nine crop types. Apple cider vinegar was the standard bait in all trap types. In the overall analysis, yellow-colored traps caught significantly more flies than clear, white, and black traps; and red traps caught more than clear traps. Results by color may be influenced by crop type. Overall, the trap with a greater bait surface area caught slightly more D. suzukii than the trap with smaller area (90 vs. 40 cm(2)). Overall, the two traps with a side-mesh entry, with or without a protective rain tent, caught more D. suzukii than the trap with a top-mesh entry and tent.

The susceptibility of small fruits and cherries to the spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii.

BACKGROUND: The spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii Matsumura, is native to Asia and was first detected in the North American mainland and Europe in 2008-2010. Drosophila suzukii is a serious economic pest to stone and small fruits because the female lays eggs within ripening fruit on a plant before harvest, which can lead to crop loss. The aim of this study was to evaluate the susceptibility of blackberries, blueberries, cherries, grapes, raspberries and strawberries to D. suzukii among various ripeness stages and cultivars. RESULTS: In 26 no-choice and choice replicated laboratory cage tests on ripeness stages, fruits were generally susceptible to D. suzukii once fruits started to color. Few D. suzukii developed on green fruit, wine grapes or overripe blueberries. In seven cultivar tests, D. suzukii preferences ranged from no differences to fourfold differences for specific cultivars of blackberries, blueberries, raspberries and wine grapes. As brix levels increased, more eggs were laid or more D. suzukii developed on blackberries, blueberries, cherries, raspberries and strawberries. In a choice test of various fruit types, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, cherries and blueberries were more susceptible to D. suzukii than green table grapes ('Thompson'). CONCLUSION: The results suggest that fruits may become susceptible to D. suzukii as they start to turn color, and that specific varieties of grapes and overripe blueberries have low susceptibility to D. suzukii.