Epidemiology of neonatal sepsis in two neonatal intensive care units in Krakow, Poland in 2016-2017 years.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis in low-birth-weight neonates remains one of the most significant causes of neonatal morbidity and mortality. Approximately 3 million newborns suffer from sepsis globally every year. The aim of this study was to compare demographic and clinical features, as well as etiology and antibiotic susceptibility, of the main pathogens related to neonatal sepsis in two neonatal intensive units during a two-year period. METHODS: We observed early-onset (EO-BSI) and late-onset bloodstream infections (LO-BSI) cases in two high-reference neonatal intensive care units (NICU) over a 24-month period (2016-2017). Samples of patients' blood were tested for the presence of the microorganisms. All bacterial isolates were tested for susceptibility to antibiotics. RESULTS: The majority of sepsis cases weighed above 1000 g and were born by cesarean section. About 10% of the EO-BSI group died. There were differences in the EO-BSI /LO-BSI ratio in the compared wards due to differences among the admitted children. The most common pathogens isolated from blood were coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) were represented by two dominating species: S. epidermidis and S. haemolyticus, followed by Klebsiella spp. strains and E.coli, which were mostly found in EO-BSI cases. No single S. agalactiae (GBS) strain was isolated. The majority of CoNS strains were resistant to methicillin, half were resistant to aminoglycosides, and one-third were resistant to macrolides and lincosamides. Half of the Gram-negative rods were resistant to beta-lactams. CONCLUSIONS: The epidemiology of sepsis in two observed NICUs is comparable to data obtained from other studies with a predominance of methicillin-resistant CoNS in LO-BSI and beta-lactam resistant E. coli in EO-BSI. It is of importance that the campaign for controlling GBS carriage in pregnant women in Poland resulted in the disappearance of GBS as a cause of sepsis. Unfortunately, there are no such measures to control E.coli related sepsis.

The virulence factors of group A streptococcus strains isolated from invasive and non-invasive infections in Polish and German centres, 2009-2011.

Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS) is one of the major human pathogenic bacteria that cause a wide range of diseases. Currently, increased incidence of streptococcal invasive infections is observed worldwide. In this study, we focused on the prevalence of genes encoding superantigens and type M proteins in the population of GAS strains from invasive versus non-invasive infections. We tested 253 GAS strains: 48 strains from patients with invasive infections (18 from wound/deep skin localization, 30 from women in labour) and 205 strains from non-invasive forms (147 from common infections of the upper respiratory, 49 from the vagina of females with genital tract infections and 9 from non-invasive wound and superficial skin infections). Significant differences were found in the occurrence of genes: speG, speI, speJ and smeZ, which were more common in GAS isolated from invasive than from non-invasive strains; speJ and smeZ occurred more frequently in strains from invasive perinatal infections versus strains from women without symptoms of invasive infection; speH and speI in strains from invasive skin/wound infection versus strains isolated from non-invasive wound and superficial skin infections. Emm types 1 and 12 predominated in the group of strains isolated from superficial infections and type 28 in those from puerperal fever. Occurrence of genes encoding virulence factors is common in genomic DNA of most of S. pyogenes, regardless whether these streptococcal infections are invasive or non-invasive. On the other hand, it appears that strains with speG, speI, speJ and smeZ genes may have a particular potential for virulence.

Virulence factors of Streptococcus pyogenes strains from women in peri-labor with invasive infections.

Invasive group A streptococcal (GAS) infections constitute an important epidemiological problem. Many cases occur in women during the postnatal period. The objective of this study was to evaluate the presence of the genes responsible for production of iron-chelating protein (perR) and superantigens (speA, speB, speC, speF, speG, speH, speI, speJ, speK, speL, speM, smeZ, and ssa) in S. pyogenes strains isolated from invasive infections in women after delivery. Furthermore, this study sought to verify whether S. pyogenes strains show special phenotypic and genotypic (sla, spy1325) characteristics that may play a decisive role in adherence to the genital tract epithelium. Moreover, the emm-types and antibiotic susceptibility were determined. We tested 30 invasive S. pyogenes strains isolated from postpartum invasive infection and 37 GAS control strains isolated from the genital tracts of asymptomatic multiparous women. The majority of the tested strains were shown to express two types of emm genes (1 and 28), though emm -12, -28, -75 and -89 were uniquely expressed in the group of strains isolated from invasive infections. A significantly higher prevalence of perR in the strains from puerperal fever was shown. Significant differences were also found between the two groups with respect to the incidence of the genes related to adherence; GAS strains originating from women with sepsis/puerperal fever showed presence of these genes less frequently than those of the control group. Although differences in frequencies of the gene coding for various superantigens were noted between the compared groups of GAS strains, they were not significant.

Infection control: point prevalence study versus incidence study in Polish long-term care facilities in 2009-2010 in the Malopolska Region.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the epidemiology of infection in Polish long-term care facilities (LTCFs) and to analyse the capabilities and legitimacy of implementing continuous targeted surveillance. METHODS: The study investigated the relationship between the presence of infection and health status, tested using a point prevalence study (PPS) and incidence study. A 1-day PPS was carried out in October 2009, with prospective continuous surveillance between December 2009 and November 2010. Infections were defined according to McGeer's criteria. RESULTS: The surveillance encompassed 193 people. The prevalence was 14.0 % in residential homes (RHs) and 18.7 % in the nursing home (NH). Various types of infections (in the PPS) were observed significantly more frequently in patients with asthma, wounds, atherosclerosis of lower extremities, tracheotomy tubes and conditions in patients hospitalised in intensive care units (ICUs) up to 1 year before the PPS day. The incidence rate was 2.7/1,000 patient days (pds). CONCLUSIONS: The factors determined to be important for the risk of infection (in the continuous study) include the general status of patients, expressed using Barthel, abbreviated mental and Katz scales, as well as limited physical activity, stool incontinence and urinary catheterisation. In the PPS study, only a slight relationship was shown between the general status of residents and the risk of infection. None of the general status scales used clinically were shown to be helpful in estimating that risk, similarly to the five-point physical activity scale. Prospective continuous surveillance shows a possibility of limiting the range of infection control in the LTCFs within targeted surveillance in a population of patients that requires intensive nursing procedures. As a marker, one could point to the low score in the Barthel or Katz scales or low physical activity/bedridden persons.

Molecular characterization of capsular polysaccharides and surface protein genes in relation to genetic similarity of group B streptococci isolated from Polish pregnant women.

Serotyping, subtyping and genotyping are important tools for epidemiological studies of group B streptococci (GBS). We investigated the genotype distribution of 353 GBS isolates originating from vaginal or rectal carriage to identify capsular serotypes and subtypes based on the surface protein genes of the alpha-like protein (Alp) family. GBS were recovered from 30% of 1176 pregnant women during the period 2007-2009, with a predominance of capsular genotypes III (35%), Ia (20%), V (17%), II (15%), Ib (8%) and IV (5%). The most common Alp gene was epsilon (26%), followed by rib (22%), alp2 (21%), bca (17%) and alp3 (14%). Several protein genes were significantly associated (G(2)=249·635, P<0·0001) with particular serotypes: epsilon with Ia, Ib, IV; bca with Ib, II; rib with II, III; alp3 with V; alp2 with III. High genetic diversity within GBS strains was observed using DNA macrorestriction. Serotypes Ib, II and III demonstrated the greatest genetic heterogeneity and serotype V the lowest heterogeneity (relative frequency coefficient ≥0·03 vs. -0·46, respectively). Macrolide-resistant strains with serotype V and alp3 gene, showed higher uniformity in genetic profile. The distribution of serotypes and surface proteins of GBS strains are necessary data to inform the design and formulation of new GBS vaccines for use in Poland and other countries.

[Antibiotic consumption and its costs of purchase in Polish neonatology networks units]. / Zuzycie antybiotyków i koszty ich zakupu w oddzialach Polskiej sieci neonatologicznej.

AIM: The study presents the results of the analysis of antibiotic consumption and its direct costs in selected neonatal units. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data were collected retrospectively (the year 2007) in five hospitals, during the pilot phase of the Polish Neonatal Network . Antibiotic consumption was assessed using the Defined Daily Dose (DDD). The costs were assessed as the costs of purchase of one DDD. RESULTS: The study included 11 922 children hospitalized in the period from 1.01 to 31.12.2007. In this group, 731 infants have birth weight < 1500 grams (from 2.2% to 64.2% in individual units, median--7.3%). The mean consumption of antibacterial drugs was 48.52 DDD/1 000 person-days (P-D) of stay among the entire study population (median--42,52), and varied from 23.13 to 85.82 DDD/1,000 P-D. However, this difference has not been statistically significant. The most commonly used group of antibiotics were beta-lactams--in four out of five units the percentage of its usage ranged from 48.71% to 74.67%. Next group were aminoglicosides--in one unit its usage reached 56.97% and in other ranged from 5.01% to 22.53%. Glycopeptides and macrolides were also used in every unit of the studied group. The usage of glycopeptides ranged from 1.7% to 10.81% and of macrolides from 1.32% to 15.71%. Different kinds of antibiotics were used occasionally. The differences of costs of purchase of one DDD between hospitals were greater and varied from 17,64 PLN/ DDD to 84,58 PLN/ DDD (average costs). A considerable range of costs index values was also noted for different groups of antibiotics. The costs of purchase of one DDD of beta-lactams varied from 19.54 PLN/ DDD to 68.35 PLN/ DDD; for aminoglicosides the cost varied from 4.61 PLN/ DDD to 122.9 PLN/ DDD, for glycopeptides--from 31.40 PLN/ DDD to 283.13 PLN/ DDD and in case of macrolides: from 12.05 PLN/ DDD to 90.77 PLN/ DDD. This differentiation of the cost of purchasing a single defined daily dose, taking into account the specific groups of antibiotics, did not have the characteristics of statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: As expected, the antibiotic regimens in the studied wards were similar. This is due to a homogeneous population of hospitalized patients. However, the differences of costs of purchase of antibiotics observed in the study, indicate the considerable variety of the treatment patterns in Polish neonatology units and the need to develop and implement recommendations of effective pharmacotherapy for patients in intensive neonatal care units and the implementation of a unified model of infections surveillance.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Europe: which infection control measures are taken?

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of hospital-acquired Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections shows a huge variety across Europe. Some countries reported a reduction in MRSA frequency, while in others countries increasing MRSA rates have been observed. To reduce the spread of MRSA in the healthcare setting, a sufficient MRSA management is essential. In order to reflect the MRSA management across Europe, MRSA prevention policies were surveyed in ten countries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The survey was performed by questionnaires in European intensive care units (ICUs) and surgical departments (SDs) in 2004. Questionnaires asked for availability of bedside alcohol hand-disinfection, isolation precautions, decolonization and screening methods. The study was embedded in the Hospital in Europe Link for Infection Control through Surveillance (HELICS) Project, a European collaboration of national surveillance networks. HELICS was initiated in order to harmonize the national surveillance activities in the individual countries. Therefore, HELICS participants developed surveillance modules for nosocomial infections in ICUs and for surgical site infections (SSI). The coordination of this surveillance has now been transferred to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). RESULTS: A total of 526 ICUs and 223 SDs from ten countries sent data on organisational characteristics and policies, demonstrating wide variations in care. Substantial variation existed in availability of bedside alcohol hand-disinfection, which was much higher in participating ICUs rather than in SDs (86 vs. 59%). Surveillance cultures of contact patients were obtained in approximately three-fourths of all SDs (72%) and ICUs (75%). Countries with decreasing MRSA proportions showed especially strict implementation of various prevention measures. CONCLUSION: The data obtained regarding MRSA prevention measures should stimulate infection control professionals to pursue further initiatives. Particularly, the vigorous MRSA management in countries with decreasing MRSA proportions should encourage hospitals to implement preventive measures in order to reduce the spread of MRSA.

National influences on catheter-associated bloodstream infection rates: practices among national surveillance networks participating in the European HELICS project.

This study was performed to evaluate associations between organisational characteristics, routine practices and the incidence densities of central venous catheter-associated bloodstream infections (CVC-BSI rates) in European intensive care units (ICUs) as part of the HELICS project (Hospitals in Europe Link for Infection Control through Surveillance). Questionnaires were sent to ICUs participating in the national nosocomial infection surveillance networks in 2004. The national networks were asked for the CVC-BSI rates of the ICUs participating for the time period 2003--2004. Univariate and multivariate risk factor analyses were performed to identify which practices had the greatest impact on CVC-BSI rates. A total of 526 ICUs from 10 countries sent data on organisational characteristics and practices, demonstrating wide variation in care. CVC-BSI rates were also provided for 288 ICUs from five countries. This made it possible to include 1383444 patient days, 969897 CVC days and 1935 CVC-BSI cases in the analysis. Adjusted logistic regression analysis showed that the categorical variables of country [odds ratio (OR) varying per country from OR: 2.3; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.5-10.2; to OR: 12.8; 95% CI: 4.4-37.5; in reference to the country with the lowest CVC-BSI rates] and type of hospital 'university' (OR: 2.08; 95% CI: 1.02-4.25) were independent risk factors for high CVC-BSI rates. Substantial variation existed in CVC-BSI prevention activities, surveillance methods and estimated CVC-BSI rates among the European countries. Differences in cultural, social and legal perspectives as well as differences between healthcare systems are crucial in explaining these differences.

National hand hygiene campaigns in Europe, 2000-2009.

Hand hygiene represents the single most effective way to prevent healthcare-associated infections. The World Health Organization, as part of its First Global Patient Safety Challenge, recommends implementation of multi-faceted strategies to increase compliance with hand hygiene. A questionnaire was sent by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control to 30 European countries, regarding the availability and organisation of their national hand hygiene campaigns. All countries responded. Thirteen countries had organised at least one national campaign during the period 2000-2009 and three countries were in the process of organising a national campaign. Although the remaining countries did not have a national campaign, several reported regional and local hand hygiene activities or educational resources on national websites.

Clinical and microbiological aspects of the use of Lactobacillus rhamnosus PL1 strains in proctological patients with symptoms of chronic proctitis.

Recurrent proctitis and the symptoms associated therewith pose significant clinical problem in proctological patients. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus PL1 strain on the clinical presentation and composition of intestinal microbiota in patients with symptoms of proctitis in the course of hemorrhoidal disease and diverticulosis. Material consisted of 24 patients in whom no complete clinical improvement could be obtained after the treatment of the underlying disease. Subject to the assessment was the presence and the intensity of clinical symptoms as well as qualitative and quantitative changes in the composition of bacterial flora detected in the stool before, during and after a 9-week supplementation with the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus PL1 strain. RESULTS: In the entire study group, the intensity of pain after 12 weeks was significantly lower (p=0,.011) compared to baseline; the intensity of flatulence and abdominal discomfort was reduced significantly as early as after 3 weeks, with the difference reaching a highly significant level after 12 weeks (pP<0,.0001). No significant difference was observed in the frequency of the reported episodes of diarrhea, constipation, as well as itching and burning in the anal region. As early as after 3 weeks of supplementation with the probiotic L. rhamnosus PL1 strain, significant qualitative and quantitative changes were observed in the composition of intestinal microbiota; the changes differed depending on the underlying disease. An increase in the total counts of the bacteria of Lactobacillus genus, particularly L. rhamnosus PL1 strain was observed regardless of the underlying disease. CONCLUSION: Tthe probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus PL1 strain appears to be useful in restoring appropriate ratios of bacterial populations in patients presenting with symptoms of proctitis in the course of the treatment of certain diseases of the lower gastrointestinal tract.

Treatment of acute infectious diarrhoea in infants and children with a mixture of three Lactobacillus rhamnosus strains--a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Multiple studies document that probiotics are effective in treating infectious diarrhoea in children. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG is the most extensively studied but effectiveness of other strains has been poorly examined. AIM: To determine whether L. rhamnosus strains (573L/1; 573L/2; 573L/3) (Lakcid L, Biomed, Lublin, Poland) would be effective in shortening infectious diarrhoea. METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 87 children (age range: 2 months to 6 years) with infectious diarrhoea were administered Lakcid L at a dose 1.2 x 10(10) CFU or placebo, twice daily, for 5 days. Primary outcome measure was the duration of diarrhoea. Secondary measures were duration of parenteral rehydration, adverse events, and gastrointestinal tract colonization by administered strains. RESULTS: In an intention to treat analysis of 87 children, the mean duration of diarrhoea in the treated group: 84 +/- 56 h; placebo: 96 +/- 72 h (P = 0.36). In rotavirus infection: 76 +/- 35 h vs. 115 +/- 67 h (P = 0.03), respectively. Duration of parenteral rehydration: 15 +/- 14 h vs. 38 +/- 33 h (P = 0.006). Gut colonization by administered strains was 80% and 41% at five and 14 days, respectively. No adverse events were noted. CONCLUSIONS: Administration of L. rhamnosus strains shortens the duration of rotaviral diarrhoea in children but not of diarrhoea of any aetiology. Intervention shortens the time of intravenous rehydration.

Urinary tract infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa among children in Southern Poland: Virulence factors and antibiotic resistance.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyze antibiotic resistance and virulence patterns in Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PAR) isolates from urinary tract infections among children in Southern Poland. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study comprised consecutive, non-repetitive PAR isolates sent from two collaborative laboratories. The study group consisted of children aged up to 17 years from Southern Poland with culture-proven PAR UTIs. Relevant information about patients with UTIs, such as age, sex, and type of infection (polymicrobial or monomicrobial), was collected. Isolates were screened for major virulence factors found in uropathogenic PAR strains. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains were defined as strains not susceptible to one antimicrobial in at least three different antimicrobial classes. Extensively drug resistant (XDR) strains were defined as strains susceptible to no more than two antimicrobial classes. RESULTS: The total prevalence of PAR UTIs was 2.1%, and in children <5 years of age it was 3.0%. A total of 26 isolates was tested: 21 from outpatients and five from inpatients. Most infections (80.8%) occurred in children ≤ 4 years of age. The most prevalent virulence gene was exoY (96.2%). The prevalence of other effector proteins was 88.5% for exoT, 92.3% for exoS, and 19.2% for exoU. The gene for LasB was present in 80.8% of isolates; the gene for AprA in 61.5%; the gene for PilA in 19.2%; and the gene for PilB was not detected. The PAR isolates were generally susceptible to beta-lactam and aminoglycoside antimicrobials. All isolates were also susceptible to colistin. A large proportion of isolates were resistant to carbapenems and fluoroquinolones (Fig. 1). No significant differences were found in antimicrobial resistance between males and females or inpatients and outpatients (p > 0.05 for all tested antimicrobials), or in antimicrobial resistance between younger (≤ 5 years old, n = 21) and older (> 5 years old, n = 5) children (p > 0.05 for all tested antimicrobials). Two isolates were classified as XDR and none as MDR. The EDTA test yielded one MBL-positive isolate (3.8%), from a 17-year-old patient in home care. No isolates with genes for the KPC, IMP, or VIM were identified. CONCLUSION: As data on UTIs in children with Pseudomonas etiology are scarce, this paper provides useful information for clinicians and allows for comparison between Poland and other countries. Our findings have important implications for clinicians treating UTIs empirically, because the success of empiric treatment is based on knowledge of pathogen antimicrobial susceptibility patterns.

The training curriculum in hospital infection control.

Standardised training curricula for infection control nurses (ICNs) and recognition of the specialty exist in many European countries, but infection control physician (ICP) is not a specialty recognised by the UEMS. To gather information on curricula for ICPs, members of the ESCMID Study Group on Nosocomial Infections received a questionnaire. There is discussion about which 'professions' should be included in an infection control team. Within the 12 countries included, the average full-time equivalents (FTEs) for ICPs and ICNs per 1000 beds were 1.2 and 3.4, respectively. In addition to ICNs and ICPs, an infection control team should also include a data manager, an epidemiologist, secretarial/administrative support, and possibly, surveillance technicians. Overall, the composition of an ideal infection control team was estimated to be 9.3 FTE per 1000 beds. The background of ICPs can be clinical microbiology or infectious diseases. Among the participants, it was predominantly clinical microbiology. The ideal training curriculum for the ICP should include 6 years of postgraduate training. Of these, at least 2 years should be 'clinical training' (e.g., internal medicine) to acquire experience in the management of high-risk patients. Furthermore, training with regard to infection control and hospital epidemiology should be offered as a 'common trunk' for those being trained in clinical microbiology or infectious diseases. Important issues that remain are: implementation/standardisation of training curricula for doctors, recognition of ICP as a separate specialty or sub-specialty of clinical microbiology and/or infectious diseases, validation of on-the-job training facilities in terms of the number of doctors and nurses who can give training and the category of patients/problems present, and mandatory postgraduate education/continuing medical education specific for infection control for doctors and nurses in the field.

Provision and consumption of alcohol-based hand rubs in European hospitals.

Hand hygiene is considered to be the most effective way of preventing microbial transmission and healthcare-associated infections. The use of alcohol-based hand rubs (AHRs) is the reference standard for effective hand hygiene. AHR consumption is a valuable surrogate parameter for hand hygiene performance, and it can be easily tracked in the healthcare setting. AHR availability at the point of care ensures access to optimal agents, and makes hand hygiene easier by overcoming barriers such as lack of AHRs or inconvenient dispenser locations. Data on AHR consumption and availability at the point of care in European hospitals were obtained as part of the Prevention of Hospital Infections by Intervention and Training (PROHIBIT) study, a framework 7 project funded by the European Commission. Data on AHR consumption were provided by 232 hospitals, and showed median usage of 21 mL (interquartile range (IQR) 9-37 mL) per patient-day (PD) at the hospital level, 66 mL/PD (IQR 33-103 mL/PD) at the intensive-care unit (ICU) level, and 13 mL/PD (IQR 6-25 mL/PD) at the non-ICU level. Consumption varied by country and hospital type. Most ICUs (86%) had AHRs available at 76-100% of points of care, but only approximately two-thirds (65%) of non-ICUs did. The availability of wall-mounted and bed-mounted AHR dispensers was significantly associated with AHR consumption in both ICUs and non-ICUs. The data show that further improvement in hand hygiene behaviour is needed in Europe. To what extent factors at the national, hospital and ward levels influence AHR consumption must be explored further.

Differential susceptibility of Propionibacterium acnes, P. granulosum and P. avidum to free fatty acids.

The susceptibility of 98 Propionibacterium acnes, P. granulosum and P. avidum strains isolated from acne cases and appropriate reference strains to decanoic, dodecanoic, octadeca-9,12 dienoic, and octadeca-9,12,15 trienoic acids was investigated using minimal inhibitory concentration estimation by an agar dilution techique. The tested acids showed their relative antibacterial activity in the following order: C18:3 delta 9,12,15 greater than C18:2 delta 9,12 greater than C12:0 greater than C10:0 Differences between minimal inhibitory concentration values for P. acnes, and P. avidum versus P. granulosum strains were demonstrated in the cases of octadeca-9,12 dienoic, and octadeca-9,12,15 trienoic acids.

In vitro effects of skin lipid extracts on skin bacteria in relation to age and acne changes.

Skin lipid extracts of 185 persons of different age were tested in vitro against single representatives of skin bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Propionibacterium acnes, P. granulosum and Corynebacterium sp. in order to find differences in their inhibitory effects. Percentages of the extracts inhibiting the first 4 bacteria were nearly the same (about 20%) while corynebacteria were inhibited by only 3 extracts. Extracts showing these properties were isolated mainly from adolescents with acne changes, young adults, about 20 yr old, and from children 8--10 yr old, but not from elderly people. The age-related differences in growth inhibition may be related to known differences in relative composition of the sebum constituents according to age. Forty-two extracts of acne patients and healthy adults and adolescents showed an inverse effect in vitro: they enhanced bacterial growth. Growth enhancement was demonstrated only for P. granulosum.

Evaluation of the lysostaphin-susceptibility test for the classification of staphylococci.

A collection of 39 staphylococcal strains of known peptidoglycan structure was cultivated on media supplemented with different peptones or with glycine or inosine. The susceptibility to lysostaphin 50 mg/litre was then checked by a plate-dilution method. The results of the test were dependent on the conditions of growth. Another collection of 403 staphylococcal strains from international collections, clinical material and healthy human skin was also tested for susceptibility to lysostaphin. No uniform pattern of the lysostaphin sensitivity in individual staphylococcal species was found. The lysostaphin-susceptibility test thus seems to be of little value in the classification of staphylococci for the purposes of medical microbiology.

Quantitative studies of the flora of the nasal vestibule in relation to nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus.

Aerobic and anaerobic bacterial flora and yeast flora of the nasal vestibule were studied quantitatively in eight persons who were persistent, transient or non-carriers of Staphylococcus aureus. The nasal flora of all the subjects consisted of lipophilic and non-lipophilic aerobic diphtheroids, propionibacteria and different staphylococcal species. Other micro-organisms, such as Pityrosporum and Candida, micrococci, streptococci and coliforms were found only occasionally. The presence of S. aureus was related to diminished numbers of other staphylococcal strains and of propionibacteria.

Handwashing practices in Polish hospitals: results of a survey conducted by Polish Society of Hospital Infection.

Handwashing is the most important and least expensive measure for preventing transmission of hospital-acquired infections. Nevertheless, healthcare workers do not seem to understand the risks associated with non-compliance. Thus, compliance is usually poor and rarely exceeds 40%. The Polish Society of Hospital Infection has made a short study of handwashing practices in Polish hospitals as observed by members of infection control teams. The study was based on questionnaires given to infection control workers attending the annual congress of the society. The workers were asked to complete the forms during the congress according to their perceived estimations. Altogether 78 complete questionnaires were analysed. The responding staff members were from hospitals of all sizes, reference levels and regions. Nearly all (95.6%) hospitals had a written protocol for handwashing procedures but according to the estimates of their infection control teams, the compliance rates varied from 20 to 80% although in most institutions was between 40% and 60%. In the vast majority of the hospitals, alcoholic rub preparations were used (70.3%), but in some both handwashing with chlorhexidine in detergents and alcohol-based antiseptics were used in different situations. According to the respondents, the mean time of hand disinfection varied from 1 to 3 min. The handwashing procedures were mostly performed in examination, operating and patients' rooms. Thus, it seems that as in other countries, Polish healthcare workers fail to understand the importance of handwashing.

Immunoglobulin production in cultures of human peripheral blood lymphocytes upon stimulation with various killed staphylococci.

Formalin killed Staphylococci (S. epidermidis, S. saprophyticus and six different strains of S. aureus) were used as inducers of immunoglobulin production in cultures of human peripheral blood lymphocytes. These strains differed in cell wall composition which raised a question what cell wall constituent is responsible for induction of the response. All strains except S. epidermidis induced the response in cultures of unseparated peripheral blood lymphocytes but only some of them were able to trigger immunoglobulin production in T-cell depleted cultures. The obtained results suggest that peptidoglycan is most likely responsible for stimulatory activity of Staphylococci while the presence of protein A reduces the T-cell dependency of the response.