Identification of spirocyclic piperidine-azetidine inverse agonists of the ghrelin receptor.

The discovery of spirocyclic piperidine-azetidine inverse agonists of the ghrelin receptor is described. The characterization and redressing of the issues associated with these compounds is detailed. An efficient three-step synthesis and a binding assay were relied upon as the primary means of rapidly improving potency and ADMET properties for this class of inverse agonist compounds. Compound 10 n bearing distributed polarity in the form of an imidazo-thiazole acetamide and a phenyl triazole is a unit lower in logP and has significantly improved binding affinity compared to the hit molecule 10a, providing support for further optimization of this series of compounds.

Design of a multi-purpose fragment screening library using molecular complexity and orthogonal diversity metrics.

Fragment Based Drug Discovery (FBDD) continues to advance as an efficient and alternative screening paradigm for the identification and optimization of novel chemical matter. To enable FBDD across a wide range of pharmaceutical targets, a fragment screening library is required to be chemically diverse and synthetically expandable to enable critical decision making for chemical follow-up and assessing new target druggability. In this manuscript, the Pfizer fragment library design strategy which utilized multiple and orthogonal metrics to incorporate structure, pharmacophore and pharmacological space diversity is described. Appropriate measures of molecular complexity were also employed to maximize the probability of detection of fragment hits using a variety of biophysical and biochemical screening methods. In addition, structural integrity, purity, solubility, fragment and analog availability as well as cost were important considerations in the selection process. Preliminary analysis of primary screening results for 13 targets using NMR Saturation Transfer Difference (STD) indicates the identification of uM-mM hits and the uniqueness of hits at weak binding affinities for these targets.

Bioactivation of the nontricyclic antidepressant nefazodone to a reactive quinone-imine species in human liver microsomes and recombinant cytochrome P450 3A4.

The therapeutic benefits of the antidepressant nefazodone have been hampered by several cases of acute hepatotoxicity/liver failure. Although the mechanism of hepatotoxicity remains unknown, it is possible that reactive metabolites of nefazodone play a causative role. Studies were initiated to determine whether nefazodone undergoes bioactivation in human liver microsomes to electrophilic intermediates. Following incubation of nefazodone with microsomes or recombinant P4503A4 in the presence of sulfydryl nucleophiles, conjugates derived from the addition of thiol to a monohydroxylated nefazodone metabolite were observed. Product ion spectra suggested that hydroxylation and sulfydryl conjugation occurred on the 3-chlorophenylpiperazine-ring, consistent with a bioactivation pathway involving initial formation of p-hydroxynefazodone, followed by its two-electron oxidation to the reactive quinone-imine intermediate. The formation of novel N-dearylated nefazodone metabolites was also discernible in these incubations, and 2-chloro-1,4-benzoquinone, a by-product of N-dearylation, was trapped with glutathione to afford the corresponding hydroquinone-sulfydryl adduct. Nefazodone also displayed NADPH-, time-, and concentration-dependent inactivation of P4503A4 activity, suggesting that reactive metabolites derived from nefazodone bioactivation are capable of covalently modifying P4503A4. A causative role for 2-chloro-1,4-benzoquinone and/or the quinone-imine intermediate(s) in nefazodone hepatotoxicity is speculated. Although the antianxiety agent buspirone, which contains a pyrimidine ring in place of the 3-chlorophenyl-ring, also generated p-hydroxybuspirone in liver microsomes, no sulfydryl conjugates of this metabolite were observed. This finding is consistent with the proposal that two-electron oxidation of p-hydroxybuspirone to the corresponding quinone-imine is less favorable due to differences in the protonation state at physiological pH and due to weaker resonance stabilization of the oxidation products as predicted from ab initio measurements.

Surface salt bridges, double-mutant cycles, and protein stability: an experimental and computational analysis of the interaction of the Asp 23 side chain with the N-terminus of the N-terminal domain of the ribosomal protein l9.

Experimental and theoretical double-mutant cycles have been used to investigate a salt bridge in the N-terminal domain of the protein L9. Aspartic acid 23 is the only acidic residue involved in a well-defined pairwise interaction, namely, a partially solvent-exposed salt bridge with the protonated N-terminus of the protein. Mutations were studied in which Asp 23 was substituted by alanine, asparagine, and nitrile alanine. Interactions with the N-terminus were probed by comparisons between proteins with a protonated and acetylated N-terminus. The mutants were all folded, and the structures were unchanged from wild type as judged by CD and 2-D NMR. The coupling free energy between the N-terminus and the side chain of Asp 23 measured through double-mutant cycle analysis was favorable and ranged from -0.7 to -1.7 kcal mol(-)(1), depending upon the set of mutants used. This relatively large coupling free energy for a surface salt bridge likely arises from geometric factors that reduce the entropy loss associated with salt-bridge formation and from structural relaxation in the mutants. Coupling free energies computed with continuum electrostatic calculations agreed well with the experimental values when full account was taken of all potential interactions, particularly those involving Asp 23 and the acetylated N-terminus as well as interactions with solvent. The measured and calculated coupling free energy decreased only slightly when the salt concentration was increased from 100 to 750 mM NaCl. The calculations suggest that the coupling free energy between D23 and the N-terminus measured through the experimental double-mutant cycle analysis is significantly smaller than the actual interaction free energy between the groups in the wild-type structure because of the inapplicability of assumptions frequently used to interpret double-mutant cycles.