Iron status biomarkers and C-reactive protein in children aged 19 to 72 months in Chile.

BACKGROUND: The Chilean Ministry of Health has combated iron deficiency through the delivery of fortified milk by the National Complementary Feeding Program (NCFP). OBJECTIVE: To assess iron status and associations between biomarkers of iron status and serum C-reactive protein (CRP) in 218 beneficiaries of the NCFP aged 19 to 72 months in Santiago and Valparaiso, Chile. METHODS: Blood was collected from a cross-sectional representative sample. Iron status (measured by hemoglobin, zinc protoporphyrin, and serum ferritin levels) and inflammation (according to CRP level) were determined. RESULTS: Serum CRP level was positively associated with serum ferritin and zinc protoporphyrin levels (r = 0.16 and r = 0.15; p = .0168 and p = .0290, respectively). Serum ferritin was higher among children with high CRP (> 10 mg/dL) than among those with low CRP (< or = 10 mg/dL) (p = .003). After adjustment for 10, 6, and 5 mg/L CRP, the prevalence of low serum ferritin changed from 56.4% without adjustment to 60.6%, 61.5%, and 42.7%, respectively, and the prevalence of high zinc protoporphyrin changed from 22.9% to 21.6%, 17.4%, and 17.9%, respectively. There were no differences between regions in biomarkers of iron status. There was no association between consumption of fortified milk and the prevalence of abnormal serum ferritin (< 15 microg/L) after adjustment for sex, age, and breastfeeding (OR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.99 to 1.01; p = .288). After adjustment for 10 mg/L CRP, 5.5% were classified as having iron-deficiency anemia, 42.7% as having iron-deficiency erythropoiesis, 17.9% as having depleted iron stores, and 35.8% as having normal iron status. CONCLUSIONS. CRP level was positively associated with: serum ferritin and zinc protoporphyrin levels. Chilean children aged 19 to 72 months from Santiago and Valparaiso who were beneficiaries of the NCFP had a low prevalence of iron-deficiency anemia, a high prevalence of iron-deficiency erythropoiesis, and a moderate prevalence of depleted iron stores.

Chilean complementary feeding program reduces anemia and improves iron status in children aged 11 to 18 months.

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutritional deficiency in the world, primarily affecting infants, young children, and women of childbearing age. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of the National Complementary Feeding Program (NCFP) on anemia and iron status in Chilean children aged 11 to 18 months. METHODS: Two studies were performed. The first study was performed at one public outpatient health center in Santiago, using data collected in 1999 (n = 128) and 2000 (n = 125), before and after the national introduction of iron-fortified milk. Subsequently, a study of a representative sample (n = 320) from the two most populated areas of the country was performed in 2009. RESULTS: One year after fortification, the prevalence of anemia was 9%; significantly lower (p < .001) than the 27% prevalence observed 1 year before. Ten years after fortification, 14% of children were anemic and 77% of children with anemia (12% of all children) suffered from iron-deficiency anemia. In 2009, 11% of children consuming iron-fortified milk delivered by the NCFP (73%) were anemic, significantly lower (p = .028) than the 21% prevalence of anemia observed in children without consumption. Consumption of iron-fortified milk was positively associated with hemoglobin concentration (r = 0.28, p = .022) and was associated with a lower prevalence of anemia after adjusting for confounding factors (odds ratio, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.26 to 0.96). CONCLUSIONS: In Chile, the NCFP has had an impact on the reduction of anemia and improved the iron status of children aged 11 to 18 months. Increasing the consumption of this iron-fortified milk could enhance the impact of the NCFP.

Low prevalence of anemia in children aged 19 to 72 months in Chile.

BACKGROUND: In 1974/75, the prevalence of anemia in Chilean preschoolers was 18.8%. Since 2000, the Chilean Ministry of Health has combated anemia through the delivery of iron-fortified milk by the National Complementary Feeding Program (NCFP). OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of anemia in children aged 19 to 72 months who are beneficiaries of the NCFP. METHODS: A cross-sectional representative sample of 224 beneficiaries of the NCFP aged 19 to 72 months from the Santiago and Valparaiso regions was recruited. RESULTS: The mean (+/- SD) hemoglobin concentration was 12.3 +/- 1.0 g/dL. Four percent of all children studied were anemic. In simple linear regression analysis, it was observed that hemoglobin concentration was positively correlated with age (r = 0.23, p = .001). There was no association between hemoglobin concentration and duration of breastfeeding (r = -0.12, p = .175). The prevalence of anemia among the 69% of children consuming iron-fortified milk delivered by NCFP was 2.6%, as compared with 7.1% among children not consuming iron-fortified milk (p = 0.227). Consumption of iron-fortified milk did not show a positive significant relationship with hemoglobin concentration (r = 0.063, p = .529). Similarly, multiple logistic regression did not show an association between consumption of fortified milk and anemia, after adjusting for sex, age, and breastfeeding (p = .150; OR = 0.98; 95% CI, 0.95 to 0.10). CONCLUSIONS: In 2009 anemia was not a public health problem in Chilean children aged 19 to 72 months from Santiago and Valparaiso.

[Folate, vitamin B12 and human health]. / Folatos y vitamina B12 en la salud humana.

During the past decade the role of folate and vitamin B12 in human nutrition have been under constant re-examination. Basic knowledge on the metabolism and interactions between these essential nutrients has expanded and multiple complexities have been unraveled. These micronutrients have shared functions and intertwined metabolic pathways that define the size of the "methyl donor" pool utilized in multiple metabolic pathways; these include DNA methylation and synthesis of nucleic acids. In Chile, folate deficiency is virtually nonexistent, while vitamin B12 deficiency affects approximately 8.5-51% depending on the cut-off value used to define deficiency. Folate is found naturally mainly in vegetables or added as folic acid to staple foods. Vitamin B12 in its natural form is present only in foods of animal origin, which is why deficit is more common among strict vegetarians and populations with a low intake of animal foods. Poor folate status in vulnerable women of childbearing age increases the risk of neural tube birth defects, so the critical time for the contribution of folic acid is several months before conception since neural tube closure occurs during the first weeks of life. The absorption of vitamin B12 from food is lower in older adults, who are considered to have higher risk of gastric mucosa atrophy, altered production of intrinsic factor and acid secretion. Deficiency of these vitamins is associated with hematological disorders. Vitamin B12 deficiency can also induce clinical and sub-clinical neurological and of other disorders. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on recent advances in the basic and applied knowledge of these vitamins relative to human health.

Comparison of two modes of vitamin B12 supplementation on neuroconduction and cognitive function among older people living in Santiago, Chile: a cluster randomized controlled trial. a study protocol [ISRCTN 02694183].

BACKGROUND: Older people have a high risk of vitamin B12 deficiency; this can lead to varying degrees of cognitive and neurological impairment. CBL deficiency may present as macrocytic anemia, subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord, or as neuropathy, but is often asymptomatic in older people. Less is known about subclinical vitamin B12 deficiency and concurrent neuroconduction and cognitive impairment. A Programme of Complementary Feeding for the Older Population (PACAM) in Chile delivers 2 complementary fortified foods that provide approximately 1.4 µg/day of vitamin B12 (2.4 µg/day elderly RDA). The aim of the present study is to assess whether supplementation with vitamin B12 will improve neuroconduction and cognitive function in older people who have biochemical evidence of vitamin B12 insufficiency in the absence of clinical deficiency. METHODS: We designed a cluster double-blind placebo-controlled trial involving community dwelling people aged 70-79 living in Santiago, Chile. We randomized 15 clusters (health centers) involving 300 people (20 per cluster). Each cluster will be randomly assigned to one of three arms: a) a 1 mg vitamin B12 pill taken daily and a routine PACAM food; b) a placebo pill and the milk-PACAM food fortified to provide 1 mg of vitamin B12; c) the routine PACAM food and a placebo pill.The study has been designed as an 18 month follow up period. The primary outcomes assessed at baseline, 4, 9 and 18 months will be: serum levels of vitamin B12, neuroconduction and cognitive function. CONCLUSIONS: In view of the high prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency in later life, the present study has potential public health interest because since it will measure the impact of the existing program of complementary feeding as compared to two options that provide higher vitamin B12 intakes that might potentially may contribute in preserving neurophysiologic and cognitive function and thus improve quality of life for older people in Chile. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN: ISRCTN02694183.

National food-fortification program with folic acid in Chile.

The Chilean Ministry of Health legislated to add folic acid (2.2 mg/100 g) to wheat flour to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTD), beginning in January 2000. This policy resulted in a significant increase in serum and red blood cell folate in women of childbearing age 1 year after fortification. The frequency of NTD was studied in all births, both live and stillbirths, in a prospective hospital-based design including 25% of national births during 1999-2000 (prefortification period) and 2001-2002 (postfortification period). During the prefortification period, there was a total of 120,566 newborns, and the NTD rate was 17.1/10,000 births. During the postfortification period (2001-2002) there was a total of 117,704 newborns, and the NTD rate was significantly reduced by 43% to 9.7/10,000 births (RR = 0.57; 95% CI, 0.45 to 0.71). This implies a reduction of 43% in the rate of NTD. The costs per NTD case and infant death averted were 1,200 international dollars (I$) and I$11,000, respectively. The cost per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted was I$91, or 0.8% of the country's per capita GDP. On the overall, fortification resulted in net cost savings of I$1.8 million. Fortification of wheat flour with folic acid has proven to be an effective and cost saving strategy for the primary prevention of NTD in a middle-income country in a postepidemiological transition, and in a dramatically short period of time.

Microsatellite polymorphism in the heme oxygenase-1 gene promoter is associated with iron status in persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: High iron stores are known to cause type 2 diabetes mellitus in persons with hemochromatosis. However, it is not clear whether moderately elevated iron stores predict the risk of type 2 diabetes in healthy persons. Heme oxygenase (HO) 1 expression is increased when intracellular iron increases. Furthermore, HO shows a microsatellite polymorphism in its gene promoter that could be related to its expression and activity. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to determine the length of (GT)(n) repeats in the HO1 gene promoter by using capillary electrophoresis and HO enzymatic activity in mononuclear cells (MNCs) from adult diabetes patients. We also aimed to assess the relation between these results and iron stores. DESIGN: We studied 99 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and 90 nondiabetic (control) subjects. We determined iron status (serum iron, ferritin, and transferrin receptor), HO activity, and micropolymorphism. RESULTS: One diabetes patient and 5 control subjects had iron deficiency anemia. No iron overload was detected in either group. Diabetes patients had significantly greater iron stores (P < 0.0001), total body iron (P < 0.001), and HO activity (P < 0.001) than did control subjects. A positive association between serum iron and HO activity was seen in the diabetes patients (P < 0.0001). Allelic frequency did not differ significantly between diabetes patients and control subjects; however, the frequency of the SM genotype was significantly higher and that of the SS and MM genotypes was significantly lower in the diabetes patients than in control subjects (P < 0.001 for all). CONCLUSIONS: Type 2 diabetes patients carrying short (GT)(n) repeats may have higher ferritin values and greater HO enzymatic activity and may have greater susceptibility to diabetes than may those with long (GT)(n) repeats.

Iron absorption from wheat flour: effects of lemonade and chamomile infusion.

OBJECTIVE: We measured iron bioavailability of meals based on wheat flour consumed by a vulnerable population in Latin America. METHODS: Bioavailability of iron (ferrous sulfate) from fortified noodles, noodle soup, noodle soup eaten with lemonade sweetened with panela (unrefined whole cane sugar), bread alone, and bread consumed with a chamomile infusion sweetened with panela was studied using the double isotopic method in 13 women. RESULTS: Iron bioavailabilities from bread, noodles, and noodle soup were not significantly different (7.4%, 6.3%, and 6.0%, respectively). Iron absorption from noodle soup was significantly higher when given with lemonade (11.0%) compared with absorption of the same meal without lemonade (P < 0.02) or with the absorption of noodles (P < 0.04). Iron absorption of bread given alone or with chamomile infusion sweetened with panela (8%) was not significantly different. CONCLUSION: Iron bioavailability of meals based on wheat flour, fortified with ferrous sulfate, is improved when given with lemonade. The consumption of this beverage may be an alternative to further increase the effectiveness of wheat flour fortification in preventing iron deficiency in low-income Latin American populations.

Cost-effectiveness of a folic acid fortification program in Chile.

OBJECTIVE: Periconceptional intake of folic acid reduces the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs), a frequent birth defect that can cause significant infant mortality and disability. In Chile, fortification of wheat flour with folic acid has resulted in significant reduction in the risk of anencephaly and spina bifida. We investigated the cost-effectiveness implications of this policy. METHODS: We conducted an ex-post economic analysis of this intervention. Estimates of the effect of fortification in decreasing NTDs and deaths were derived from a prospective evaluation. The costs of fortification and provision of medical care to children with spina bifida in Chile were based on primary data collection. FINDINGS: The intervention costs per NTD case and infant death averted were I$ 1200 and 11,000, respectively. The cost per DALY averted was I$ 89, 0.8% of Chile's GDP per capita. Taking into account averted costs of care, fortification resulted in net cost savings of I$ 2.3 million. CONCLUSION: Fortification of wheat flour with folic acid is a cost-effective intervention in Chile, a middle income country in the post-epidemiological transition. This result supports the continuation of the Chile fortification program and constitutes valuable information for policy makers in other countries to consider.

Ascorbyl palmitate enhances iron bioavailability in iron-fortified bread.

BACKGROUND: One of the strategies to control iron deficiency anemia is the fortification of food with iron. A mechanism for improving the bioavailability of iron is to add an iron absorption promoter. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to determine the effect of ascorbyl palmitate (AP) on the bioavailability of iron in fortified bread made from refined wheat flour. DESIGN: The iron bioavailability of wheat flour fortified with either ferrous sulfate alone or ferrous sulfate plus AP was studied with the use of double radio iron (55Fe and 59Fe) erythrocyte incorporation in 14 women. RESULTS: Geometric mean (+/- range of 1 SD) iron absorption from the bread fortified with ferrous sulfate was 10.5% (4.1-27.0%). The addition of AP at molar ratios of AP to Fe of 2:1 and 4:1 significantly increased iron absorption [14.6% (5.9-36.1%) and 20.2% (10.6-38.6%), respectively; P < 0.001]. CONCLUSION: AP is a strong promoter of iron absorption from fortified bread because of its thermoresistant properties.

Effects of a nutritional supplement fortified with vitamin B-12 on well nourished, free-living elderly subjects.

UNLABELLED: Vitamin B-12 deficiency is prevalent among the elderly population but it is often unrecognized because the clinical manifestations are not present. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of a nutritional supplement fortified with vitamin B-12 on well nourished, free-living elderly subjects. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Healthy elderly subjects attending two of four clinics were allocated to receive, over six months' duration, a nutritional supplement with 3.8 microg of vitamin B-12. Subjects attending the other two clinics served as controls. Serum vitamin B-12 levels were measured at baseline and 6 months after the supplementation was started. RESULTS: After 6 months of consuming the supplement fortified with vitamin B-12, serum B-12 concentration increased from 350.1 +/- 166.5 pmol/L to 409.0 +/- 166.1 and decreased in the control group from 319.4 +/- 129.1 to 290.1 +/- 135.7 (ANOVA, p < 0.005). CONCLUSION: A supplementation with 3.8 microg /day of vitamin B-12 led to significant improvements in the serum concentrations of vitamin B-12 in older persons.

Vitamin B-12 treatment of asymptomatic, deficient, elderly Chileans improves conductivity in myelinated peripheral nerves, but high serum folate impairs vitamin B-12 status response assessed by the combined indicator of vitamin B-12 status.

BACKGROUND: It is uncertain whether vitamin B-12 supplementation can improve neurophysiologic function in asymptomatic elderly with low vitamin B-12 status or whether folate status affects responses to vitamin B-12 supplementation. OBJECTIVE: We assessed the effects of a single intramuscular injection of 10 mg vitamin B-12 (which also contained 100 mg vitamin B-6 and 100 mg vitamin B-1) on vitamin B-12 status and neurophysiologic function in elderly community-dwelling Chileans with low serum vitamin B-12 concentrations who were consuming bread fortified with folic acid. DESIGN: A pretreatment and posttreatment study was conducted in 51 participants (median ± SD age: 73 ± 3 y; women: 47%) with serum vitamin B-12 concentrations <120 pmol/L at screening. Vitamin B-12 status was defined by combining vitamin B-12, plasma total homocysteine (tHcy), methylmalonic acid (MMA), and holotranscobalamin into one variable [combined indicator of vitamin B-12 status (cB-12)]. The response to treatment was assessed by measuring cB-12 and neurophysiologic variables at baseline and 4 mo after treatment. RESULTS: Treatment increased serum vitamin B-12, holotranscobalamin, and cB-12 (P < 0.001) and reduced plasma tHcy and serum MMA (P < 0.001). Treatment produced consistent improvements in conduction in myelinated peripheral nerves; the sensory latency of both the left and right sural nerves improved on the basis of faster median conduction times of 3.1 and 3.0 ms and 3.3 and 3.4 ms, respectively (P < 0.0001). A total of 10 sensory potentials were newly observed in sural nerves after treatment. Participants with high serum folate at baseline (above the median, ≥33.9 nmol/L) had less improvement in cB-12 (P < 0.001) than did individuals whose serum folate was less than the median concentration (i.e., with a concentration <33.9 nmol/L). CONCLUSION: Asymptomatic Chilean elderly with poor vitamin B-12 status displayed improved conductivity in myelinated peripheral nerves after vitamin B-12 treatment and an interaction with folate status, which was detected only with the use of cB-12. This trial was registered at www.controlled-trials.com as ISRCTN02694183.

Iron bis-glycine chelate competes for the nonheme-iron absorption pathway.

BACKGROUND: The enterocytic absorption pathway of the food fortificant iron bis-glycine chelate has been the subject of controversy because it is not clear whether that substance uses the classic nonheme-iron absorption pathway or a pathway similar to that of heme absorption. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to study the absorption pathway of iron bis-glycine chelate in human subjects. DESIGN: Eighty-five healthy adult women were selected to participate in 1 of 6 iron-absorption studies. Study A involved the measurement of the dose-response curve of the absorption of ferrous sulfate (through a nonheme-iron absorption pathway); study B involved the competition of iron bis-glycine chelate with ferrous sulfate for the nonheme-iron absorption pathway; study C involved the measurement of the dose-response curve of heme-iron absorption; study D involved the competition of iron bis-glycine chelate with hemoglobin for the heme-iron absorption pathway; and studies E and F were the same as studies A and B, except that the iron bis-glycine chelate was encapsulated in enteric gelatin capsules so that it would not be processed in the stomach. RESULTS: Iron from the bis-glycine chelate competed with ferrous sulfate for the nonheme-iron absorption pathway. Iron from the bis-glycine chelate also competed with ferrous sulfate for absorption when liberated directly into the intestinal lumen. Iron from the bis-glycine chelate did not compete with heme iron for the heme-iron absorption pathway. CONCLUSION: The iron from iron bis-glycine chelate delivered at the level of the stomach or duodenum becomes part of the nonheme-iron pool and is absorbed as such.

Folic acid fortification of wheat flour: Chile.

Neural tube defects (open spina bifida, anencephaly, and encephalocele) represent the first congenital malformations to be preventable through public health measures such as supplementation and/or food fortification with folic acid. In Chile, starting in January 2000, the Chilean Ministry of Health legislated to add folic acid to wheat flour (2.2 mg/kg) to reduce the risk of NTDs. This policy resulted in an estimated mean additional supply of 427 microg/d in significant increases in serum folate and red cell folate of 3.8 and 2.4-fold, respectively, in women of fertile age, one year after fortification. The impact on the rate of NTDs is presently being studied in all births, both live births and still births, with birth weight >500 g in the city of Santiago. Preliminary results show a reduction of 40% in the rates on NTDs from the pre-fortification period (1999-2000) to post-fortification period (2001-June 2002). Fortification of wheat flour with folic acid in Chile is effective in preventing NTDs in Chile.

Zinc and iron nutrition in Chilean children fed fortified milk provided by the Complementary National Food Program.

OBJECTIVE: Chilean infants are at risk for isolated zinc and iron deficiencies because of a low consumption of animal products in low socioeconomic sectors. In 1999, the National Complementary Food Program of Chile manufactured a new milk (2 kg of powdered milk/mo) fortified with iron (Fe; 10 mg/L), zinc (Zn; 5 mg/L), and copper (0.5 mg/L) to be provided to infants until age 18 mo and to pregnant women. We analyzed the nutrition status of zinc and iron at age 18 mo in infants who consumed the fortified cow's milk. METHODS: Forty-two healthy male children with normal growth and from lower socioeconomic groups were studied. A nutrition survey was conducted; blood and hair samples for Zn in plasma and hair, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and serum ferritin were obtained. RESULTS: Mean intakes were: energy, 106 +/- 27 kcal. kg(-1). d(-1); protein, 3.8 +/- 1.1 g. kg(-1). d(-1); Zn, 5.2 +/- 1.9 g/d (0.98 mg Zn/MJ; 68% of World Health Organization recommendations); Fe, 11.2 +/- 5.5 mg/d; and dietary fiber, 9.8 +/- 3.9 g/d. Plasma Zn in 54.8% of children was no greater than 12.3 microM/L; 36% had hair Zn level no greater than 1.23 microM/g and 39% had serum ferritin levels no greater than 10 microg/dL (12% were anemic). Hair Zn was correlated to socioeconomic level (Spearman's rank correlation, r = -0.53; P < 0.001) and plasma Zn was correlated to the z weight/length (r = 0.47; P < 0.05), subscapular skinfold (r = 0.46; P < 0.05), and Zn intake (r = 0.46; P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The fortified powdered cow's milk provided to infants until age 18 mo by the Complementary Food Program in Chile favorably affects the Fe status of these children, but possibly not the Zn nutrition; we suggest re-evaluation of the levels of Zn fortification.

Iron amino acid chelates.

Iron amino acid chelates, such as iron glycinate chelates, have been developed to be used as food fortificants and therapeutic agents in the prevention and treatment of iron deficiency anemia. Ferrous bis-glycine chelate (FeBC), ferric tris-glycine chelate, ferric glycinate, and ferrous bis-glycinate hydrochloride are available commercially. FeBC is the most studied and used form. Iron absorption from FeBC is affected by enhancers and inhibitors of iron absorption, but to a lesser extent than ferrous sulfate. Its absorption is regulated by iron stores. FeBC is better absorbed from milk, wheat, whole maize flour, and precooked corn flour than is ferrous sulfate. Supplementation trials have demonstrated that FeBC is efficacious in treating iron deficiency anemia. Consumption of FeBC-fortified liquid milk, dairy products, wheat rolls, and multi-nutrient beverages is associated with an improvement of iron status. The main limitations to the widespread use of FeBC in national fortification programs are the cost and the potential for promoting organoleptic changes in some food matrices. Additional research is required to establish the bioavailability of FeBC in different food matrices. Other amino acid chelates should also be evaluated. Finally there is an urgent need for more rigorous efficacy trials designed to define the relative merits of amino acid chelates when compared with bioavailable iron salts such as ferrous sulfate and ferrous fumarate and to determine appropriate fortification levels

Enhancing the absorption of fortification iron. A SUSTAIN Task Force report.

Iron deficiency remains a major global health problem affecting an estimated 2 billion people. The World Health Organization ranked it as the seventh most important preventable risk for disease, disability, and death in 2002. Since an important factor in its causation is the poor bioavailability of iron in the cereal-based diets of many developing countries, SUSTAIN set up a Task Force, consisting of nutritional, medical, industry, and government experts to consider strategies for enhancing the absorption of fortification iron. This paper summarizes the findings of this Task Force. Detailed reviews of each strategy follow this overview. Highly soluble compounds of iron like ferrous sulfate are desirable food fortificants but cannot be used in many food vehicles because of sensory issues. Thus, potentially less well-absorbed forms of iron commonly are used in food fortification. The bioavailability of iron fortificants can, however, be enhanced with innovative ingredient technologies. Ascorbic acid, NaFeEDTA, ferrous bisglycinate, and dephytinization all enhance the absorption of fortification iron, but add to the overall costs of fortification. While all strategies cannot be recommended for all food fortification vehicles, individual strategies can be recommended for specific foods. For example, the addition of ascorbic acid is appropriate for dry blended foods such as infant foods and other dry products made for reconstitution that are packaged, stored, and prepared in a way that maximizes retention of this vitamin. NaFeEDTA can be recommended for fortification of fish sauce and soy sauce, whereas amino acid chelates may be more useful in milk products and beverages. With further development, dephytinization may be possible for low-cost, cereal-based complementary foods in developing countries. Encapsulation of iron salts in lipid coatings, while not an iron absorption-enhancing strategy per se, can prevent soluble forms of iron from interacting undesirably with some food vehicles and hence broaden the application of some fortificants. Research relevant to each of these strategies for enhancing the bioavailability or utility of iron food fortificants is reviewed. Individual strategies are evaluated in terms of enhancing effect and stability, organoleptic qualities, cost, and regulatory issues of interest to the nutrition community, industry, and consumers. Recommendations are made on potential usages and further research needs. Effective fortification depends on the selection of technically feasible and efficacious strategies. Once suitable strategies have been identified, cost becomes very important in selecting the best approach to implement. However it is essential to calculate cost in relation to the amount of bioavailable iron delivered. An approach to the calculation of cost using a conservative estimate of the enhancing effects of the innovative technologies discussed in the supplement is given in the final section.

Cross-talk between body iron stores and diabetes: iron stores are associated with activity and microsatellite polymorphism of the heme oxygenase and type 2 diabetes.

To assess the relationship between the length of (GT)n repeats in HO-1 gene promoter and heme oxygenase (HO) enzymatic activity in mononuclear cells with iron (Fe) stores in type 2 diabetic mellitus (DM2) patients and metabolic syndrome (MS) subjects, we studied 163 patients with DM2, 185 with MS, and 120 controls subjects. We evaluated iron status (hemoglobin and serum Fe, ferritin, and transferrin receptor), and we determined the length of (GT)n repeats in HO-1 gene promoter by capillary electrophoresis and HO enzymatic activity in mononuclear cells and assessed the relationship between these results and Fe stores. Only 1/163, 6/185, and 7/120 had iron deficiency anemia in DM2 patients, MS subjects, and controls, respectively. No iron overload (ferritin>200 µg/L) was detected in all the subjects studied. DM2 patients had higher iron deposits, total body iron, and heme oxygenase activity (a suggestion of high oxidative stress condition) than MS subjects and controls. In DM2, we found a positive association between serum iron and HO activity. There were no difference in allelic frequency between the three groups; however, among DM2 and MS patients, the frequency of short/medium (SM) genotype of (GT)n repetition was increased and medium/medium (MM) genotype of (GT)n repetition was lower than controls. These results imply that DM2 patients and individuals with MS carrying SM repeats might have higher susceptibility to develop diabetes consequences. This increased susceptibility could be Fe-mediated oxidative stress.

Folatos y vitamina B12 en la salud humana / Folate, vitamin B12 and human health

During the past decade the role of folate and vitamin B12 in human nutrition have been under constant re-examination. Basic knowledge on the metabolism and interactions between these essential nutrients has expanded and multiple complexities have been unraveled. These micronutrients have shared functions and intertwined metabolic pathways that define the size of the "methyl donor" pool utilized in multiple metabolic pathways; these include DNA methylation and synthesis of nucleic acids. In Chile, folate deficiency is virtually nonexistent, while vitamin B12 deficiency affects approximately 8.5-51% depending on the cut-off value used to define deficiency. Folate is found naturally mainly in vegetables or added as folic acid to staple foods. Vitamin B12 in its natural form is present only in foods of animal origin, which is why deficit is more common among strict vegetarians and populations with a low intake of animal foods. Poorfolate status in vulnerable women of childbearing age increases the risk of neural tube birth defects, so the critical time for the contribution of folic acid is several months before conception since neural tube closure occurs during the first weeks of life. The absorption of vitamin B12 from food is lower in older adults, who are considered to have higher risk of gastric mucosa atrophy, altered production of intrinsic factor and acid secretion. Deficiency of these vitamins is associated with hematological disorders. Vitamin B12 deficiency can also induce clinical and sub-clinical neurological and of other disorders. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on recent advances in the basic and applied knowledge of these vitamins relative to human health.