The Prdm family: expanding roles in stem cells and development.

Members of the Prdm family are characterized by an N-terminal PR domain that is related to the SET methyltransferase domain, and multiple zinc fingers that mediate sequence-specific DNA binding and protein-protein interactions. Prdm factors either act as direct histone methyltransferases or recruit a suite of histone-modifying enzymes to target promoters. In this way, they function in many developmental contexts to drive and maintain cell state transitions and to modify the activity of developmental signalling pathways. Here, we provide an overview of the structure and function of Prdm family members and discuss the roles played by these proteins in stem cells and throughout development.

A synthetic luxCDABE gene cluster optimized for expression in high-GC bacteria.

The luxCDABE operon of the bioluminescent bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens has proven to be a superb transcriptional reporter. It encodes a luciferase (LuxA and LuxB) and the enzymes that produce its substrate (LuxC, LuxD and LuxE) so cells that express the cluster emit the 490-nm light spontaneously. The sequence of these genes is AT-rich (>69%) and for this and other reasons, they are not expressed efficiently in high-GC bacteria like Streptomyces coelicolor. We therefore constructed a synthetic luxCDABE operon encoding the P. luminescens Lux proteins optimized for expression in high-GC bacteria. We tested the genes using transcriptional fusions to S. coelicolor promoters having well-established expression profiles during this organism's life cycle. The hrdB gene encodes a housekeeping sigma factor; while ramC is important for the formation of the spore-forming cells called aerial hyphae and whiE is required for the production of a grey, spore-associated pigment that is deposited in the walls of developing spores. Using these fusions we demonstrated that our synthetic lux genes are functional in S. coelicolor and that they accurately report complex developmental gene expression patterns. We suggest that this lux operon and our procedure for generating synthetic high-GC genes will be widely useful for research on high-GC bacteria.

The neural crest transcription factor Brn3a is expressed in melanoma and required for cell cycle progression and survival.

Pigment cells and neuronal cells both are derived from the neural crest. Here, we describe the Pit-Oct-Unc (POU) domain transcription factor Brn3a, normally involved in neuronal development, to be frequently expressed in melanoma, but not in melanocytes and nevi. RNAi-mediated silencing of Brn3a strongly reduced the viability of melanoma cell lines and decreased tumour growth in vivo. In melanoma cell lines, inhibition of Brn3a caused DNA double-strand breaks as evidenced by Mre11/Rad50-containing nuclear foci. Activated DNA damage signalling caused stabilization of the tumour suppressor p53, which resulted in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. When Brn3a was ectopically expressed in primary melanocytes and fibroblasts, anchorage-independent growth was increased. In tumourigenic melanocytes and fibroblasts, Brn3a accelerated tumour growth in vivo. Furthermore, Brn3a cooperated with proliferation pathways such as oncogenic BRAF, by reducing oncogene-induced senescence in non-malignant melanocytes. Together, these results identify Brn3a as a new factor in melanoma that is essential for melanoma cell survival and that promotes melanocytic transformation and tumourigenesis.

Proapoptotic signaling induced by RIG-I and MDA-5 results in type I interferon-independent apoptosis in human melanoma cells.

The retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation-associated antigen 5 (MDA-5) helicases sense viral RNA in infected cells and initiate antiviral responses such as the production of type I IFNs. Here we have shown that RIG-I and MDA-5 also initiate a proapoptotic signaling pathway that is independent of type I IFNs. In human melanoma cells, this signaling pathway required the mitochondrial adapter Cardif (also known as IPS-1) and induced the proapoptotic BH3-only proteins Puma and Noxa. RIG-I- and MDA-5-initiated apoptosis required Noxa but was independent of the tumor suppressor p53. Triggering this pathway led to efficient activation of mitochondrial apoptosis, requiring caspase-9 and Apaf-1. Surprisingly, this proapoptotic signaling pathway was also active in nonmalignant cells, but these cells were much less sensitive to apoptosis than melanoma cells. Endogenous Bcl-xL rescued nonmalignant, but not melanoma, cells from RIG-I- and MDA-5-mediated apoptosis. In addition, we confirmed the results of the in vitro studies, demonstrating that RIG-I and MDA-5 ligands both reduced human tumor lung metastasis in immunodeficient NOD/SCID mice. These results identify an IFN-independent antiviral signaling pathway initiated by RIG-I and MDA-5 that activates proapoptotic signaling and, unless blocked by Bcl-xL, results in apoptosis. Due to their immunostimulatory and proapoptotic activity, RIG-I and MDA-5 ligands have therapeutic potential due to their ability to overcome the characteristic resistance of melanoma cells to apoptosis.