Encephalitis associated with influenza B virus infection in 2 children and a review of the literature.

Two children with influenza B-associated encephalitis (IBAE) presented to our hospital during the winter of 2000-2001, both of whom had cases notable for mutism in association with encephalitis. A review of the literature identified 13 additional reports consistent with IBAE that contained sufficient data for analysis. Eleven of 15 reported cases occurred in children aged

Socioeconomic and racial disparities of pediatric invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Racial differences have been well described for invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), but little information exists on how race interacts with community socioeconomic factors. METHODS: The Active Bacterial Core surveillance/Emerging Infections Program performed active surveillance for IPD in the 20-county Metropolitan Atlanta area. All IPD cases among children younger than 5 years from 2001 to 2009 were geocoded and linked to census tract-level socioeconomic measures from the 2000 US Census. Race- and socioeconomic-specific average annual incidence rates per 100,000 population were calculated. Trends in IPD incidence were determined by χ² tests for trend. Rate ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using Poisson regression. RESULTS: IPD incidence among the total population of children increased as percentage of household poverty increased (P = 0.002), as median household income decreased (P < 0.001), as wealth decreased (P = 0.018) and as percentage of individuals with less than a high school education increased (P = 0.023). After stratifying by race, there was no significant linear trend between socioeconomic characteristics and IPD incidence among white children; among black children, however, IPD incidence decreased as socioeconomic conditions worsened. Despite adjusting for sex and socioeconomic factors, the IPD rate remained higher among black children compared with white children (RR = 1.60; 95% CI: 1.39-1.84). Differences in RR of IPD associated with highest poverty and lowest wealth noted in 2001 [RR = 2.71 (95% CI: 2.17-3.39) and 1.80 (95% CI: 1.09-2.96), respectively] declined in 2009 [RR = 1.33 (95% CI: 0.90-1.96) and 0.76 (95% CI: 0.48-1.19), respectively]. CONCLUSIONS: Although socioeconomic disparities in IPD incidence exist among children, the association between socioeconomic characteristics and IPD rates may differ by race and may change over time. Community-level socioeconomic factors did not account for racial differences in IPD incidence.

Early-onset group B streptococcal disease in the United States: potential for further reduction.

OBJECTIVE: To describe lapses in adherence to group B streptococcus (GBS) prevention guidelines among cases of early-onset GBS disease in term and preterm neonates and to estimate the potential for further reduction in disease burden under current prevention strategies. METHODS: We reviewed labor and delivery and prenatal records of mothers of neonates with early-onset GBS disease (aged younger than 7 days with GBS isolated from a normally sterile site) identified at population-based surveillance sites in 2008-2009. We interviewed prenatal care providers about GBS screening practices and obtained relevant laboratory records. We evaluated the data for errors in prenatal screening, laboratory methods, communication of results, and intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Using published data on screening sensitivity and intrapartum prophylaxis effectiveness, we estimated the potential reduction in cases under optimal prevention implementation. RESULTS: Among 309 cases, 179 (57.9%) had one or more implementation errors. The most common error type in term and preterm case-patients was prenatal screening (80 of 222 [36.0%]) and intrapartum prophylaxis (46 of 85 [54.1%]), respectively. We estimated that under optimal implementation, cases of early-onset GBS disease could be reduced by 26-59% with the largest benefit from a single intervention coming from improved use of intrapartum prophylaxis (16% decrease). CONCLUSION: Further reduction of early-onset GBS disease burden is possible under current prevention strategies, particularly with improved implementation of antibiotic prophylaxis. However, even with perfect adherence to recommended practices, the decline in cases may be modest. Therefore, novel prevention approaches such as improved intrapartum assays and vaccines are also needed.

Pneumococcal carriage and invasive disease in children before introduction of the 13-valent conjugate vaccine: comparison with the era before 7-valent conjugate vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Nasopharyngeal (NP) carriage and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) attributable to serotypes in the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) declined dramatically after vaccine introduction, whereas non-PCV7 serotypes increased modestly. Characteristics of pneumococcal carriage and IPD among children in Atlanta, GA, were compared during 2 time periods: before PCV7 introduction and before 13-valent PCV (PCV13) introduction. METHODS: NP swabs from 231 and 451 children 6-59 months old receiving outpatient medical care were obtained in 1995 and 2009, respectively. A total of 202 and 47 IPD cases were identified in children younger than 5 years of age in 1995 and in 2008 to 2009, respectively, through active, population-based surveillance in Atlanta. Isolates were serotyped, sequence-typed (ST) and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility. RESULTS: Forty percent (93/231) of children in 1995 and 31% (139/451) in 2009 were colonized with Streptococcus pneumoniae; 60% and 0.7% were PCV7 serotypes, respectively. In 1995, PCV7 serotypes accounted for 83% and 19A accounted for 5% of IPD compared with no PCV7 serotypes and 19A accounting for 49% of IPD in 2009 (P < 0.001). In 2009, PCV13 serotypes accounted for 22% of carriage (mostly 19A) and 60% of invasive isolates (P < 0.001). ST320 accounted for 66% and 52% of 19A carriage and IPD isolates in 2009, respectively; all ST320 isolates were multidrug-resistant. No ST320 NP or IPD isolates were identified before PCV7. CONCLUSIONS: Serotype distribution among NP and IPD isolates in Atlanta has shifted to non-PCV7 serotypes; 19A was the leading serotype for both. The multidrug-resistant ST320 strain was responsible for two-thirds of 19A carriage isolates and half of IPD isolates. The predominance of serotype 19A in carriage and IPD among children in Atlanta highlights the potential direct and indirect benefits anticipated by implementation of PCV13 in the community.