Extraction and Isolation of Antifreeze Proteins from Winter Rye (Secale cereale L.) Leaves.

Apoplastic extracts of cold-acclimated winter rye (Secale cereale L. cv Musketeer) leaves were previously shown to exhibit antifreeze activity. The objectives of the present study were to identify and characterize individual antifreeze proteins present in the apoplastic extracts. The highest protein concentrations and antifreeze activity were obtained when the leaf apoplast was extracted with ascorbic acid and either CaCl2 or MgSO4. Seven major polypeptides were purified from these extracts by one-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under nonreducing conditions. The five larger polypeptides, of 19, 26, 32, 34, and 36 kD, exhibited significant levels of antifreeze activity, whereas the 11- and 13-kD polypeptides showed only weak activity. Five of these polypeptides migrated with higher apparent molecular masses on SDS gels after treatment with 0.1 M dithiothreitol, which indicated the presence of intramolecular disulfide bonds. The apparent reduction of the disulfide bonds did not eliminate antifreeze activity in four of the polypeptides that contained intramolecular disulfide bonds and exhibited significant levels of antifreeze activity. The amino acid compositions of these polypeptides were similar in that they were all relatively enriched in the residues Asp/Asn, Glu/Gln, Ser, Thr, Gly, and Ala; they all lacked His, except for the 26-kD polypeptide, and they contained up to 5% Cys residues. These polypeptides were examined with antisera to other cystine-containing antifreeze proteins from fish and insects, and no common epitopes were detected. We conclude that cold-acclimated winter rye leaves produce multiple polypeptides with antifreeze activity that appear to be distinct from antifreezes produced by fish and insects.

Immunolocalization of Antifreeze Proteins in Winter Rye Leaves, Crowns, and Roots by Tissue Printing.

During cold acclimation, antifreeze proteins (AFPs) that are similar to pathogenesis-related proteins accumulate in the apoplast of winter rye (Secale cereale L. cv Musketeer) leaves. AFPs have the ability to modify the growth of ice. To elucidate the role of AFPs in the freezing process, they were assayed and immunolocalized in winter rye leaves, crowns, and roots. Each of the total soluble protein extracts from cold-acclimated rye leaves, crowns, and roots exhibited antifreeze activity, whereas no antifreeze activity was observed in extracts from nonacclimated rye plants. Antibodies raised against three apoplastic rye AFPs, corresponding to a glucanase-like protein (GLP, 32 kD), a chitinase-like protein (CLP, 35 kD), and a thaumatin-like protein (TLP, 25 kD), were used in tissue printing to show that the AFPs are localized in the epidermis and in cells surrounding intercellular spaces in cold-acclimated plants. Although GLPs, CLPs, and TLPs were present in nonacclimated plants, they were found in different locations and did not exhibit antifreeze activity, which suggests that different isoforms of pathogenesis-related proteins are produced at low temperature. The location of rye AFPs may prevent secondary nucleation of cells by epiphytic ice or by ice propagating through the xylem. The distributions of pathogenesis-induced and cold-accumulated GLPs, CLPs, and TLPs are similar and may reflect the common pathways by which both pathogens and ice enter and propagate through plant tissues.

Regulation of lipid binding underlies the activation mechanism of class IA PI3-kinases.

Somatic missense mutations in PIK3CA, which encodes the p110α catalytic subunit of phosphoinositide 3-kinases, occur frequently in human cancers. Activating mutations spread across multiple domains, some of which are located at inhibitory contact sites formed with the regulatory subunit p85α. PIK3R1, which encodes p85α, also has activating somatic mutations. We find a strong correlation between lipid kinase and lipid-binding activities for both wild-type (WT) and a representative set of oncogenic mutant complexes of p110α/p85α. Lipid binding involves both electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. Activation caused by a phosphorylated receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) peptide binding to the p85α N-terminal SH2 domain (nSH2) induces lipid binding. This depends on the polybasic activation loop as well as a conserved hydrophobic motif in the C-terminal region of the kinase domain. The hotspot E545K mutant largely mimics the activated WT p110α. It shows the highest basal activity and lipid binding, and is not significantly activated by an RTK phosphopeptide. Both the hotspot H1047R mutant and rare mutations (C420R, M1043I, H1047L, G1049R and p85α-N564D) also show increased basal kinase activities and lipid binding. However, their activities are further enhanced by an RTK phosphopeptide to levels markedly exceeding that of activated WT p110α. Phosphopeptide binding to p110ß/p85α and p110δ/p85α complexes also induces their lipid binding. We present a crystal structure of WT p110α complexed with the p85α inter-SH2 domain and the inhibitor PIK-108. Additional to the ATP-binding pocket, an unexpected, second PIK-108 binding site is observed in the kinase C-lobe. We show a global conformational change in p110α consistent with allosteric regulation of the kinase domain by nSH2. These findings broaden our understanding of the differential biological outputs exhibited by distinct types of mutations regarding growth factor dependence, and suggest a two-tier classification scheme relating p110α and p85α mutations with signalling potential.

Antifreeze protein produced endogenously in winter rye leaves.

After cold acclimation, winter rye (Secale cereale L.) is able to withstand the formation of extracellular ice at freezing temperatures. We now show, for the first time, that cold-acclimated winter rye plants contain endogenously produced antifreeze protein. The protein was extracted from the apoplast of winter rye leaves, where ice forms during freezing. After partial purification, the protein was identified as antifreeze protein because it modified the normal growth pattern of ice crystals and depressed the freezing temperature of water noncolligatively.

Antifreeze proteins in winter rye are similar to pathogenesis-related proteins.

The ability to control extracellular ice formation during freezing is critical to the survival of freezing-tolerant plants. Antifreeze proteins, which are proteins that have the ability to retard ice crystal growth, were recently identified as the most abundant apoplastic proteins in cold-acclimated winter rye (Secale cereale L.) leaves. In the experiments reported here, amino-terminal sequence comparisons, immuno-cross-reactions, and enzyme activity assays all indicated that these antifreeze proteins are similar to members of three classes of pathogenesis-related proteins, namely, endochitinases, endo-beta-1,3-glucanases, and thaumatin-like proteins. Apoplastic endochitinases and endo-beta-1,3-glucanases that were induced by pathogens in freezing-sensitive tobacco did not exhibit antifreeze activity. Our findings suggest that subtle structural differences may have evolved in the pathogenesis-related proteins that accumulate at cold temperatures in winter rye to confer upon these proteins the ability to bind to ice.

Structural analyses of nucleotide binding to an aminoglycoside phosphotransferase.

3',5"-Aminoglycoside phosphotransferase type IIIa [APH(3')-IIIa] is a bacterial enzyme that confers resistance to a range of aminoglycoside antibiotics while exhibiting striking homology to eukaryotic protein kinases (ePK). The structures of APH(3')-IIIa in its apoenzyme form and in complex with the nonhydrolyzable ATP analogue AMPPNP were determined to 3.2 and 2.4 A resolution, respectively. Furthermore, refinement of the previously determined ADP complex was completed. The structure of the apoenzyme revealed alternate positioning of a flexible loop (analogous to the P-loop of ePK's), occupying part of the nucleotide-binding pocket of the enzyme. Despite structural similarity to protein kinases, there was no evidence of domain movement associated with nucleotide binding. This rigidity is due to the presence of more extensive interlobe interactions in the APH(3')-IIIa structure than in the ePK's. Differences between the ADP and AMPPNP complexes are confined to the area of the nucleotide-binding pocket. The position of conserved active site residues and magnesium ions remains unchanged, but there are differences in metal coordination between the two nucleotide complexes. Comparison of the di/triphosphate binding site of APH(3')-IIIa with that of ePK's suggests that the reaction mechanism of APH(3")-IIIa and related aminoglycoside kinases will closely resemble that of eukaryotic protein kinases. However, the orientation of the adenine ring in the binding pocket differs between APH(3')-IIIa and the ePK's by a rotation of approximately 40 degrees. This alternate binding mode is likely a conserved feature among aminoglycoside kinases and could be exploited for the structure-based drug design of compounds to combat antibiotic resistance.

Identification of the ice-binding surface on a type III antifreeze protein with a "flatness function" algorithm.

Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) adsorb to surfaces of growing ice crystals, thereby arresting their growth. The prevailing hypothesis explains the nature of adsorption in terms of a match between the hydrophilic side chains on the AFP's ice-binding surface (IBS) and the water molecules on the ice surface. The number and spatial arrangement of hydrogen bonds thus formed have been proposed to account, respectively, for the binding affinity and specificity. The crystal structure of a type III AFP from ocean pout (isoform HPLC-3) has been determined to 2.0-A resolution. The structure reveals an internal dyad motif formed by two 19-residue, loop-shaped elements. Based on of the flatness observed on the type I alpha-helical AFP's IBS, an automated algorithm was developed to analyze the surface planarity of the globular type III AFP and was used to identify the IBS on this protein. The surface with the highest flatness score is formed by one loop of the dyad motif and is identical to the IBS deduced from earlier mutagenesis studies. Interestingly, 67% of this surface contains nonpolar solvent-accessible surface area. The success of our approach to identifying the IBS on an AFP, without considering the presence of polar side chains, indicates that flatness is the first approximation of an IBS. We further propose that the specificity of interactions between an IBS and a particular ice-crystallographic plane arises from surface complementarity.

Structure of an enzyme required for aminoglycoside antibiotic resistance reveals homology to eukaryotic protein kinases.

Bacterial resistance to aminoglycoside antibiotics is almost exclusively accomplished through either phosphorylation, adenylylation, or acetylation of the antibacterial agent. The aminoglycoside kinase, APH(3')-IIIa, catalyzes the phosphorylation of a broad spectrum of aminoglycoside antibiotics. The crystal structure of this enzyme complexed with ADP was determined at 2.2 A. resolution. The three-dimensional fold of APH(3')-IIIa reveals a striking similarity to eukaryotic protein kinases despite a virtually complete lack of sequence homology. Nearly half of the APH(3')-IIIa sequence adopts a conformation identical to that seen in these kinases. Substantial differences are found in the location and conformation of residues presumably responsible for second-substrate specificity. These results indicate that APH(3') enzymes and eukaryotic-type protein kinases share a common ancestor.