Vesicles, fibres, films and crystals: A low-molecular-weight-gelator [Au(6-thioguanosine)2]Cl which exhibits a co-operative anion-induced transition from vesicles to a fibrous metallo-hydrogel.

We describe a simple coordination compound of Au(I) and 6-thioguanosine, [Au(6-tGH)2]Cl, that has a rich self-assembly chemistry. In aqueous solution, the discrete complex assembles into a supramolecular fibre and forms a luminescent hydrogel at concentrations above about 1 mM. Below this concentration, the macromolecular structure is a vesicle. Through appropriate control of the solvent polarity, the gel can be turned into a lamellar film or crystallised. The molecular structure of [Au(6-tGH)2]Cl was determined using single crystal X-ray diffraction, which showed bis-6-thioguanosine linearly coordinated through the thione moiety to a central Au(I) ion. In the vesicles, the photoluminescence spectrum shows a broad, weak band at 550 nm owing to aurophilic interactions. Co-operative self-assembly from vesicle to fibre is made possible through halogen hydrogen bonding interactions and the aurophilic interactions are lost, resulting in a strong photoluminescence band at 490 nm with vibronic structure typical of an intraligand transition. The vesicle-fibre transition is also revealed by a large increase of ellipticity in the circular dichroism spectrum with a prominent peak near 390 nm owing to the helical structure of the fibres. Atomic force microscopy shows that at the same time as fibres form, the sample gels. Imaging near the vesicle-fibre transition shows that the fibres form between vesicles and a mechanism for the transition based on vesicle collisions is proposed.

Models for sensing by nanowire networks: application to organic vapour detection by multiwall carbon nanotube-DNA films.

Electronic sensors for volatile organic compounds have been prepared by drop-casting dispersions of multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in aqueous solutions ofλ-DNA onto Pt microband electrodes. The MWCNTs themselves show a metal-like temperature dependence of the conductance, but the conductance of DNA/MWCNT composites has an activated component that corresponds to inter-tube tunneling. The resistance of the composite was modelled by a series combination of a term linear in temperature for the nanotubes and a stretched exponential form for the inter-tube junctions. The resistance may increase or decrease with temperature according to the composition and may be tuned to be almost temperature-independent at 67% by mass of DNA. Upon exposure to organic vapours, the resistance of the composites increases and the time-dependence of this signal is consistent with diffusion of the vapour into the composite. The fractional change in resistance at steady-state provides an analytical signal with a linear calibration and the presence of DNA enhances the signal and adjusts the selectivity in favour of polar analytes. The temperature dependence of the signal is determined by the enthalpy of adsorption of the analyte in the inter-tube junctions and may be satisfactorily modelled using the Langmuir isotherm. Temperature and pressure-dependent studies indicate that neither charge injection by oxidation/reduction of the analyte nor condensation of analyte on the device is responsible for the signal. We suggest that the origin of the sensing response is an adsorption of the analyte in the inter-tube regions that modulates the tunneling barriers. This suggests a general route to tuning the selectivity of MWCNT gas sensors using non-conductive polymers of varying chemical functionality.

transoid and cisoid Conformations in Silver-Mediated Cytosine Base Pairs: Hydrogen Bonding Dictates Argentophilic Interactions in the Solid State.

We have synthesized and structurally characterized examples of the well-known silver-mediated DNA base pair in its simplest possible form, as [AgI-bis-(N3-cytosine)]+. The compounds show differences such as variable coordination geometry, conformation with cisoid and transoid arrangements, and, in one case, intramolecular base pairing. Collectively, these compounds represent three of five permutations of linear/bent coordination geometry and cisoid/transoid arrangement of the cytosine ligands and contain the global minimum conformation as determined by DFT calculations: bent-transoid. Furthermore, these compounds show no argentophilic intercomplex interactions in the solid state, in marked contrast to alkylated and nucleoside analogues, and so do not form the supramolecular 1D "metallo-DNA" duplex observed in those cases but instead form hydrogen-bonded sheets. This marked difference may be attributed, in part, to the additional hydrogen bond donor site at N1 of the nucleobase that ubiquitously participates in intermolecular interactions.

Duplex Healing of Selectively Thiolated Guanosine Mismatches through a Cd2+ Chemical Stimulus.

The on-column selective conversion of guanosine to thioguanosine (tG) yields modified oligomers that exhibit destabilisation over the fully complementary duplex. Restoration to a stabilised duplex is induced through thio-directed Cd2+ coordination; a route for healing DNA damage. Short oligomers are G-specifically thiolated through a modified on-column protocol without the need for costly thioguanosine phosphoramidites. Addition of Cd2+ ions to a duplex containing a highly disrupted tG central mismatch sequence, 3'-A6 tG4 T6 -5', suggests a (tG)8 Cd2 central coordination regime, resulting in increased base stacking and duplex stability. Equilibrium molecular dynamic calculations support the hypothesis of metal-induced healing of the thiolated duplex. The 2 nm displacement of the central tG mismatched region is dramatically reduced after the addition of a chemical stimuli, Cd2+ ions, returning to a minimized fluctuational state comparable to the unmodified fully complementary oligomer.

Nanoscale silicon substrate patterns from self-assembly of cylinder forming poly(styrene)-block-poly(dimethylsiloxane) block copolymer on silane functionalized surfaces.

Poly(styrene)-block-poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PS-b-PDMS) is an excellent block copolymer (BCP) system for self-assembly and inorganic template fabrication because of its high Flory-Huggins parameter (χ âˆ¼ 0.26) at room temperature in comparison to other BCPs, and high selective etch contrast between PS and PDMS block for nanopatterning. In this work, self-assembly in PS-b-PDMS BCP is achieved by combining hydroxyl-terminated poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS-OH) brush surfaces with solvent vapor annealing. As an alternative to standard brush chemistry, we report a simple method based on the use of surfaces functionalized with silane-based self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). A solution-based approach to SAM formation was adopted in this investigation. The influence of the SAM-modified surfaces upon BCP films was compared with polymer brush-based surfaces. The cylinder forming PS-b-PDMS BCP and PDMS-OH polymer brush were synthesized by sequential living anionic polymerization. It was observed that silane SAMs provided the appropriate surface chemistry which, when combined with solvent annealing, led to microphase segregation in the BCP. It was also demonstrated that orientation of the PDMS cylinders may be controlled by judicious choice of the appropriate silane. The PDMS patterns were successfully used as an on-chip etch mask to transfer the BCP pattern to underlying silicon substrate with sub-25 nm silicon nanoscale features. This alternative SAM/BCP approach to nanopattern formation shows promising results, pertinent in the field of nanotechnology, and with much potential for application, such as in the fabrication of nanoimprint lithography stamps, nanofluidic devices or in narrow and multilevel interconnected lines.

Marine antifouling performance of polymer coatings incorporating zwitterions.

Zwitterionic materials display antifouling promise, but their potential in marine anti-biofouling is still largely unexplored. This study evaluates the effectiveness of incorporating small quantities (0-20% on a molar basis) of zwitterions as sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA) or carboxybetaine methacrylate (CBMA) into lauryl methacrylate-based coatings whose relatively hydrophobic nature encourages adhesion of the diatom Navicula incerta, a common microfouling organism responsible for the formation of 'slime'. This approach allows potential enhancements in antifouling afforded by zwitterion incorporation to be easily quantified. The results suggest that the incorporation of CBMA does provide a relatively minor enhancement in fouling-release performance, in contrast to SBMA which does not display any enhancement. Studies with coatings incorporating mixtures of varying ratios of the cationic monomer [2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium chloride and the anionic monomer (3-sulfopropyl)methacrylate, which offer a potentially lower cost approach to the incorporation of anionic and cationic charge, suggest these monomers impart little significant effect on biofouling.

Two-Dimensional Frameworks Based on Ag(I)-N Bond Formation: Single Crystal to Single Molecular Sheet Transformation.

A series of new two-dimensional coordination framework materials, based on Ag(I)-N bond formation, has been synthesized and structurally characterized by single crystal methods. Reactions between the poly-monodentate bridging ligand N,N'-((1r,4r)-cyclohexane-1,4-diyl)bis(1-(pyridin-3-yl)methanimine), L1, and silver salts yield compounds {[Ag(L1)(MeCN)](CF3SO3-)}n, 1, {[Ag(L1)(PF2O2-)]·H2O}n, 2, and {Ag2(L1)(tosylate)2}n, 3. The frameworks of these materials exhibit two distinct net topologies: 36.46.53 (1 and 2) and 44.62 (3). In all cases, L1 ligands are found to be fully saturated, in terms of metal ion binding, with both sets of pyridyl and imino N atoms involved, though in 1 and 2, crystallographically independent L1 moieties also display pyridyl-only binding. Either solvent (1) or the anion (2 and 3) acts as a terminal ligand to support interlayer interactions in the solid state. For 2 and 3 the molecular sheet orientation lies in the plane of the largest crystal face, indicating that crystal growth is preferentially driven by coordinate bond formation. Despite the relatively labile nature, typical of such Ag(I)-N bonds, solvent-based exfoliation of crystals of 3 was shown to provide dispersions of large, µm2, flakes which readily deposit on oxide surfaces as single-molecule sheets, as revealed by atomic force microscopy.

Metal-conductive polymer hybrid nanostructures: preparation and electrical properties of palladium-polyimidazole nanowires.

A simple, convenient method for the formation of hybrid metal/conductive polymer nanostructures is described. Polyimidazole (PIm) has been templated on λ-DNA via oxidative polymerisation of imidazole using FeCl3 to produce conductive PIm/DNA nanowires. The PIm/DNA nanowires were decorated with Pd (Pd/PIm/DNA) by electroless reduction of PdCl4(-2) with NaBH4 in the presence of PIm/DNA; the choice of imidazole was motivated by the potential Pd(II) binding site at the pyridinic N atom. The formation of PIm/DNA and the presence of metallic Pd on Pd/PIm/DNA nanowires were verified by FTIR, UV-vis and XPS spectroscopy techniques. AFM studies show that the nanowires have diameters in the range 5-45 nm with a slightly greater mean diameter (17.1 ± 0.75 nm) for the Pd-decorated nanowires than the PIm/DNA nanowires (14.5 ± 0.89 nm). After incubation for 24 h in the polymerisation solution, the PIm/DNA nanowires show a smooth, uniform morphology, which is retained after decoration with Pd. Using a combination of scanned conductance microscopy, conductive AFM and two-terminal measurements we show that both types of nanowire are conductive and that it is possible to discriminate different possible mechanisms of transport. The conductivity of the Pd/PIm/DNA nanowires, (0.1-1.4 S cm(-1)), is comparable to the PIm/DNA nanowires (0.37 ± 0.029 S cm(-1)). In addition, the conductance of Pd/PIm/DNA nanowires exhibits Arrhenius behaviour (E(a )= 0.43 ± 0.02 eV) as a function of temperature in contrast to simple Pd/DNA nanowires. These results indicate that although the Pd crystallites on Pd/PIm/DNA nanowires decorate the PIm polymer, the major current pathway is through the polymer rather than the Pd.

Mechanism of formation of supramolecular DNA-templated polymer nanowires.

Details of the mechanism of formation of supramolecular polymer nanowires by templating on DNA are revealed for the first time using AFM. Overall these data reveal that the smooth, regular, structures produced are rendered by highly dynamic supramolecular transformations occurring over the micrometre scale. In the initial stages of the process a low density of conducting polymer (CP) binds to the DNA as, essentially, spherical particles. Further reaction time produces DNA strands which are more densely packed with particles giving a beads-on-a-string appearance. The particles subsequently undergo dynamic reconfiguration so as to elongate along the template axis and merge to yield the highly regular, smooth morphology of the final nanowire. MD simulations illustrate the early stages of the process showing the binding of globular CP to duplex DNA, while the latter stages can be modeled effectively by a linear thermodynamic description based on the balance between the line energy, which accounts for adhesion of the material to the template, and its surface tension. This model accounts for the phenomena observed in the AFM studies: the relative success of DNA templating of polymers compared to metals; the slow approach to equilibrium; and the observed thinning and 'necking' phenomena as the structures transform from beads-on-a-string to smooth nanowire.

Post transition metal substituted Keggin-type POMs as thin film chemiresistive sensors for H2O and CO2 detection.

Chemiresitive sensing allows the affordable and facile detection of small molecules such as H2O and CO2. Herein, we report a novel class of Earth-abundant post transition metal substituted Keggin polyoxometalates (POMs) for chemiresistive sensing applications, with conductivities up to 0.01 S cm-1 under 100% CO2 and 65% Relative Humidity (RH).

Conductive, monodisperse polyaniline nanofibers of controlled length using well-defined cylindrical block copolymer micelles as templates.

Stable colloidal dispersions of polyaniline (PAni) nanofibers with controlled lengths from about 200 nm-1.1 µm and narrow length distributions (Lw/Ln < 1.04; Lw = weight average micelle length, Ln = number average micelle length) were prepared through the template-directed synthesis of PAni using monodisperse, solution-self-assembled, cylindrical, block copolymer micelles as nanoscale templates. These micelles were prepared through a crystallization-driven living self-assembly method from a poly(ferrocenyldimethylsilane)-b-poly(2-vinylpyridine) block copolymer (PFS25 -b-P2VP425). This material was initially self-assembled in iPrOH to form cylindrical micelles with a crystalline PFS core and a P2VP corona and lengths of up to several micrometers. Sonication of this sample then yielded short cylinders with average lengths of 90 nm and a broad length distribution (Lw/Ln = 1.32). Cylindrical micelles of PFS25 -b-P2VP425 with controlled lengths and narrow length distributions (Lw/Ln < 1.04) were subsequently prepared using thermal treatment at specific temperatures between 83.5 and 92.0 °C using a 1D self-seeding process. These samples were then employed in the template-directed synthesis of PAni nanofibers through a two-step procedure, where the micellar template was initially stabilised by deposition of an oligoaniline coating followed by addition of a polymeric acid dopant, resulting in PAni nanofibers in the emeraldine salt (ES) state. The ES-PAni nanofibers were shown to be conductive by scanning conductance microscopy, whereas the precursor PFS25-b-P2VP425 micelle templates were found to be dielectric in character.

Substituent and noncovalent interaction effects in the reactivity of purine derivatives with tetracarboxylato-dirhodium(II) units. Rationalization of a rare binding mode via N3.

Reactions between [Rh(2)(CH(3)COO)(4)] with 2,6-diaminopurine (HDap) or 6-chloro-2-aminopurine (HClap) and [Rh(2)((CH(3))(3)CCOO)(4)] with HClap produce, three new dirhodium(II) carboxylate complexes of the general form, [Rh(2)(RCOO)(4)(Purine)(2)] (R = CH(3), (CH(3))(3)C). Single crystal X-ray diffraction studies confirm that in all cases the purine coordinates to the axial position of the dirhodium(II)tetracarboxylate unit. However, while the complex obtained with HDap features the typical purine binding mode via N(7), complexes containing HClap show unusual N3 coordination. This is an extremely rare instance of an unrestricted purine binding via N3. Some rationalization of these data is offered based on a series of DFT calculations.

Coordination chemistry of 6-thioguanine derivatives with cobalt: toward formation of electrical conductive one-dimensional coordination polymers.

In this work we have synthetized and characterized by X-ray diffraction five cobalt complexes with 6-thioguanine (6-ThioGH), 6-thioguanosine (6-ThioGuoH), or 2'-deoxy-6-thioguanosine (2'-d-6-ThioGuoH) ligands. In all cases, these ligands coordinate to cobalt via N7 and S6 forming a chelate ring. However, independently of reagents ratio, 6-ThioGH provided monodimensional cobalt(II) coordination polymers, in which the 6-ThioG(-) acts as bridging ligand. However, for 2'-d-6-ThioGuoH and 6-ThioGuoH, the structure directing effect of the sugar residue gives rise to mononuclear cobalt complexes which form extensive H-bond interactions to generate 3D supramolecular networks. Furthermore, with 2'-d-6-ThioGuoH the cobalt ion remains in the divalent state, whereas with 6-ThioGuoH oxidation occurs and Co(III) is found. The electrical and magnetic properties of the coordination polymers isolated have been studied and the results discussed with the aid of DFT calculations, in the context of molecular wires.

Hierarchical self-assembly in an RNA-based coordination polymer hydrogel.

An RNA-based coordination polymer is formed by the aqueous reaction of CuI ions with the thionucleoside enantiomer (-)6-thioguanosine, (6tGH). The resulting polymer, [CuI(µ3-S-thioG)]n1, has a one-dimensional structure based on a [Cu4-S4] core and undergoes extensive hierarchical self-assembly transforming from oligomeric chains → rod → cable → bundle through which a fibrous gel forms, that undergoes syneresis to form a self-supporting mass. The assembly involves the formation of helical cables/bundles and, in combination with the intrinsic photoemission of the polymer, results in the material exhibiting circularly polarised luminescence (CPL).

Synthesis, characterisation and electrical properties of supramolecular DNA-templated polymer nanowires of 2,5-(bis-2-thienyl)-pyrrole.

Supramolecular polymer nanowires have been prepared by using DNA-templating of 2,5-(bis-2-thienyl)-pyrrole (TPT) by oxidation with FeCl(3) in a mixed aqueous/organic solvent system. Despite the reduced capacity for strong hydrogen bonding in polyTPT compared to other systems, such as polypyrrole, the templating proceeds well. FTIR spectroscopic studies confirm that the resulting material is not a simple mixture and that the two types of polymer interact. This is indicated by shifts in bands associated with both the phosphodiester backbone and the nucleobases. XPS studies further confirm the presence of DNA and TPT, as well as dopant Cl(-) ions. Molecular dynamics simulations on a [{dA(24):dT(24)}/{TPT}(4)] model support these findings and indicate a non-coplanar conformation for oligoTPT over much of the trajectory. AFM studies show that the resulting nanowires typically lie in the 7-8 nm diameter range and exhibit a smooth, continuous, morphology. Studies on the electrical properties of the prepared nanowires by using a combination of scanned conductance microscopy, conductive AFM and variable temperature two-terminal I-V measurements show, that in contrast to similar DNA/polymer systems, the conductivity is markedly reduced compared to bulk material. The temperature dependence of the conductivity shows a simple Arrhenius behaviour consistent with the hopping models developed for redox polymers.

Equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermodynamics of templating reactions for the formation of nanowires.

The thermodynamics of the templating of materials on one-dimensional templates, such as DNA, is modeled by considering two terms: the surface tension of the material (γ) and a line energy (σ = 2πr(T)γ(T)) that represents the adhesion of the material to the template (radius r(T)). We show that as long as the reaction stoichiometry does not exceed a certain limit (√[3ν/2π] < r(T) [absolute value]γ(T)[absolute value]/γ ; ν = volume of material per unit length of template) then a sample of smooth, uniform wires is the equilibrium state. If the amount of material exceeds this limit, then the material will comprise a single macroscopic particle at equilibrium. The behavior of the system is similar to a morphological wetting transition and the model can rationalize the available experimental data on the reaction conditions required to form smooth DNA-templated nanowires. Using the framework of linear non-equilibrium thermodynamics, we also show that the model can describe qualitatively the observed evolution of these nanostructures from beads-on-a-string morphologies to smooth nanowires and construct a stochastic differential equation for the process. Numerical simulations and scaling arguments suggest that the same scaling behavior as the Edwards-Wilkinson equation is observed.

Smooth and conductive DNA-templated Cu2O nanowires: growth morphology, spectroscopic and electrical characterization.

DNA strands have been used as templates for the self-assembly of smooth and conductive cuprous oxide (Cu2O) nanowires of diameter 12-23 nm and whose length is determined by the template (16 µm for λ-DNA). A combination of spectroscopic, diffraction and probe microscopy techniques showed that these nanowires comprise single crystallites of Cu2O bound to the DNA molecules which fused together over time in a process analogous to Ostwald ripening, but driven by the free energy of interaction with the template as well as the surface tension. Electrical characterization of the nanowires by a non-contact method, scanned conductance microscopy and by contact mode conductive AFM showed the wires are electrically conductive. The conductivity estimated from the AFM cross section and the zero-bias conductance in conductive AFM experiments was 2.2-3.3 S cm⁻¹. These Cu2O nanowires are amongst the thinnest reported and show evidence of strong quantum confinement in electronic spectra.

Circularly polarised luminescence in an RNA-based homochiral, self-repairing, coordination polymer hydrogel.

The aqueous equimolar reaction of Ag(i) ions with the thionucleoside enantiomer (-)6-thioguanosine, ((-)6tGH), yields a one-dimensional coordination polymer {Ag(-)tG} n , the self-assembly of which generates left-handed helical chains. The resulting helicity induces an enhanced chiro-optical response compared to the parent ligand. DFT calculations indicate that this enhancement is due to delocalisation of the excited state along the helical chains, with 7 units being required to converge the calculated CD spectra. At concentrations ≥15 mmol l-1 reactions form a sample-spanning hydrogel which shows self-repair capabilities with instantaneous recovery in which the dynamic reversibility of the coordination chains appears to play a role. The resulting gel exhibits circularly polarised luminescence (CPL) with a large dissymmetry factor of -0.07 ± 0.01 at 735 nm, a phenomenon not previously observed for this class of coordination polymer.

Pyrrolyl-, 2-(2-thienyl)pyrrolyl- and 2,5-bis(2-thienyl)pyrrolyl-nucleosides: synthesis, molecular and electronic structure, and redox behaviour of C5-thymidine derivatives.

A series of modified nucleosides based on thymidine have been prepared by Pd-catalysed cross-coupling between N-alkyl-alkynyl functionalised pyrrolyl- (py), 2-(2-thienyl)pyrrolyl- (tp) or 2,5-bis(2-thienyl)pyrrolyl (tpt) groups with 5-iodo-2'-deoxyuridine. The length of the alkyl chain linking the nucleoside and pyrrolyl-containing unit, N(CH(2))(n)C[triple bond, length as m-dash]C-nucleoside (where n = 1-3) was also varied. The compounds have been characterised by (1)H NMR, ES-MS, UV-vis, cyclic voltammetry (CV) and, in some cases, single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Cyclic voltammetry studies demonstrated that all the py-, tp- and tpt-alkynyl derivatives 1-7 can be electrochemically polymerised to form conductive materials. It was found that increasing the N-alkyl chain length in these cases resulted in only minor changes in the oxidation potential. The same behaviour was observed for the tp- and tpt-modified nucleosides 9-12; however, the py-derivative, 8, produced a poorly conducting material. DFT calculations on the one-electron oxidised cation of the modified nucleosides bearing tp or tpt showed that spin density is located on the pyrrolyl and thienyl units in all cases and that the coplanarity of adjacent rings increases upon oxidation. In contrast, in the corresponding pyrrolyl cases the spin density is distributed over the whole molecule, suggesting that polymerisation does not occur solely at the pyrrolyl-Cα position and the conjugation is interrupted.

Preparation, characterization and scanned conductance microscopy studies of DNA-templated one-dimensional copper nanostructures.

The synthesis of one-dimensional metal nanostructures can be achieved through the use of DNA molecules as templates to control and direct metal deposition. Copper nanostructures have been fabricated using this strategy, through association of Cu(2+) ions to DNA templates and reduced with ascorbic acid. Due to the possibility that the reduction of the Cu(2+) can result in the preferential formation of Cu(2)O over metallic Cu(0), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction have been carried out to establish the chemical identity of the nanostructures. Conclusive evidence is found that reduction of the Cu(2+) ions does result in the formation of the desired metallic Cu(0) structures. The morphology of the nanostructured Cu(0) material has also been observed by atomic force microscopy, showing the structures to have a "beads-on-a-string" appearance and being 3.0-5.5 nm in height. The electrical properties of the structures have been investigated by scanned conductance microscopy, showing the Cu(0) structures exhibit much larger electrical resistance than expected for a metallic nanowire. This is thought to be a consequence of their "beads-on-a-string" morphology and small lateral dimensions (sub-10 nm); both these factors would be expected to increase the electron scattering rate, and, further, there are likely to be significant tunneling barriers at the Cu(0) particle-particle junctions.