Sympathetic Input to Multiple Cell Types in Mouse and Human Colon Produces Region-Specific Responses.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The colon is innervated by intrinsic and extrinsic neurons that coordinate functions necessary for digestive health. Sympathetic input suppresses colon motility by acting on intrinsic myenteric neurons, but the extent of sympathetic-induced changes on large-scale network activity in myenteric circuits has not been determined. Compounding the complexity of sympathetic function, there is evidence that sympathetic transmitters can regulate activity in non-neuronal cells (such as enteric glia and innate immune cells). METHODS: We performed anatomical tracing, immunohistochemistry, optogenetic (GCaMP calcium imaging, channelrhodopsin), and colon motility studies in mice and single-cell RNA sequencing in human colon to investigate how sympathetic postganglionic neurons modulate colon function. RESULTS: Individual neurons in each sympathetic prevertebral ganglion innervated the proximal or distal colon, with processes closely opposed to multiple cell types. Calcium imaging in semi-intact mouse colon preparations revealed changes in spontaneous and evoked neural activity, as well as activation of non-neuronal cells, induced by sympathetic nerve stimulation. The overall pattern of response to sympathetic stimulation was unique to the proximal or distal colon. Region-specific changes in cellular activity correlated with motility patterns produced by electrical and optogenetic stimulation of sympathetic pathways. Pharmacology experiments (mouse) and RNA sequencing (human) indicated that appropriate receptors were expressed on different cell types to account for the responses to sympathetic stimulation. Regional differences in expression of α-1 adrenoceptors in human colon emphasize the translational relevance of our mouse findings. CONCLUSIONS: Sympathetic neurons differentially regulate activity of neurons and non-neuronal cells in proximal and distal colon to promote distinct changes in motility patterns, likely reflecting the distinct roles played by these 2 regions.

Refining Enteric Neural Circuitry by Quantitative Morphology and Function in Mice.

RNA-Seq, electrophysiology and optogenetics in mouse models are used to assess function, identify disease related genes and model enteric neural circuits. Lacking a comprehensive quantitative description of the murine colonic enteric nervous system (ENS) makes it difficult to most effectively use mouse data to better understand ENS function or for development of therapeutic approaches for human motility disorders. Our goal was to provide a quantitative description of mouse colon to establish the extent to which mouse colon architecture, connectivity and function is a useful surrogate for human and other mammalian ENS. Using GCaMP imaging coupled with pharmacology and quantitative confocal and 3D image reconstruction, we present quantitative and functional data demonstrating that regional structural changes and variable distribution of neurons define neural circuit dynamics and functional connectivity responsible for colonic motor patterns and regional functional differences. Our results advance utility of multispecies and gut region-specific data.

Robust, 3-Dimensional Visualization of Human Colon Enteric Nervous System Without Tissue Sectioning.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Small, 2-dimensional sections routinely used for human pathology analysis provide limited information about bowel innervation. We developed a technique to image human enteric nervous system (ENS) and other intramural cells in 3 dimensions. METHODS: Using mouse and human colon tissues, we developed a method that combines tissue clearing, immunohistochemistry, confocal microscopy, and quantitative analysis of full-thickness bowel without sectioning to quantify ENS and other intramural cells in 3 dimensions. RESULTS: We provided 280 adult human colon confocal Z-stacks from persons without known bowel motility disorders. Most of our images were of myenteric ganglia, captured using a 20× objective lens. Full-thickness colon images, viewed with a 10× objective lens, were as large as 4 × 5 mm2. Colon from 2 pediatric patients with Hirschsprung disease was used to show distal colon without enteric ganglia, as well as a transition zone and proximal pull-through resection margin where ENS was present. After testing a panel of antibodies with our method, we identified 16 antibodies that bind to molecules in neurons, glia, interstitial cells of Cajal, and muscularis macrophages. Quantitative analyses demonstrated myenteric plexus in 24.5% ± 2.4% of flattened colon Z-stack area. Myenteric ganglia occupied 34% ± 4% of myenteric plexus. Single myenteric ganglion volume averaged 3,527,678 ± 573,832 mm3 with 38,706 ± 5763 neuron/mm3 and 129,321 ± 25,356 glia/mm3. Images of large areas provided insight into why published values of ENS density vary up to 150-fold-ENS density varies greatly, across millimeters, so analyses of small numbers of thin sections from the same bowel region can produce varying results. Neuron subtype analysis revealed that approximately 56% of myenteric neurons stained with neuronal nitric oxide synthase antibody and approximately 33% of neurons produce and store acetylcholine. Transition zone regions from colon tissues of patients with Hirschsprung disease had ganglia in multiple layers and thick nerve fiber bundles without neurons. Submucosal neuron distribution varied among imaged colon regions. CONCLUSIONS: We developed a 3-dimensional imaging method for colon that provides more information about ENS structure than tissue sectioning. This approach could improve diagnosis for human bowel motility disorders and may be useful for other bowel diseases as well.

Extrinsic Primary Afferent Neurons Link Visceral Pain to Colon Motility Through a Spinal Reflex in Mice.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Proper colon function requires signals from extrinsic primary afferent neurons (ExPANs) located in spinal ganglia. Most ExPANs express the vanilloid receptor TRPV1, and a dense plexus of TRPV1-positive fibers is found around myenteric neurons. Capsaicin, a TRPV1 agonist, can initiate activity in myenteric neurons and produce muscle contraction. ExPANs might therefore form motility-regulating synapses onto myenteric neurons. ExPANs mediate visceral pain, and myenteric neurons mediate colon motility, so we investigated communication between ExPANs and myenteric neurons and the circuits by which ExPANs modulate colon function. METHODS: In live mice and colon tissues that express a transgene encoding the calcium indicator GCaMP, we visualized levels of activity in myenteric neurons during smooth muscle contractions induced by application of capsaicin, direct colon stimulation, stimulation of ExPANs, or stimulation of preganglionic parasympathetic neuron (PPN) axons. To localize central targets of ExPANs, we optogenetically activated TRPV1-expressing ExPANs in live mice and then quantified Fos immunoreactivity to identify activated spinal neurons. RESULTS: Focal electrical stimulation of mouse colon produced phased-locked calcium signals in myenteric neurons and produced colon contractions. Stimulation of the L6 ventral root, which contains PPN axons, also produced myenteric activation and contractions that were comparable to those of direct colon stimulation. Surprisingly, capsaicin application to the isolated L6 dorsal root ganglia, which produced robust calcium signals in neurons throughout the ganglion, did not activate myenteric neurons. Electrical activation of the ganglia, which activated even more neurons than capsaicin, did not produce myenteric activation or contractions unless the spinal cord was intact, indicating that a complete afferent-to-efferent (PPN) circuit was necessary for ExPANs to regulate myenteric neurons. In TRPV1-channel rhodopsin-2 mice, light activation of ExPANs induced a pain-like visceromotor response and expression of Fos in spinal PPN neurons. CONCLUSIONS: In mice, ExPANs regulate myenteric neuron activity and smooth muscle contraction via a parasympathetic spinal circuit, linking sensation and pain to motility.

Striking parallels between carotid body glomus cell and adrenal chromaffin cell development.

Carotid body glomus cells mediate essential reflex responses to arterial blood hypoxia. They are dopaminergic and secrete growth factors that support dopaminergic neurons, making the carotid body a potential source of patient-specific cells for Parkinson's disease therapy. Like adrenal chromaffin cells, which are also hypoxia-sensitive, glomus cells are neural crest-derived and require the transcription factors Ascl1 and Phox2b; otherwise, their development is little understood at the molecular level. Here, analysis in chicken and mouse reveals further striking molecular parallels, though also some differences, between glomus and adrenal chromaffin cell development. Moreover, histology has long suggested that glomus cell precursors are 'émigrés' from neighbouring ganglia/nerves, while multipotent nerve-associated glial cells are now known to make a significant contribution to the adrenal chromaffin cell population in the mouse. We present conditional genetic lineage-tracing data from mice supporting the hypothesis that progenitors expressing the glial marker proteolipid protein 1, presumably located in adjacent ganglia/nerves, also contribute to glomus cells. Finally, we resolve a paradox for the 'émigré' hypothesis in the chicken - where the nearest ganglion to the carotid body is the nodose, in which the satellite glia are neural crest-derived, but the neurons are almost entirely placode-derived - by fate-mapping putative nodose neuronal 'émigrés' to the neural crest.

Twist1 controls a cell-specification switch governing cell fate decisions within the cardiac neural crest.

Neural crest cells are multipotent progenitor cells that can generate both ectodermal cell types, such as neurons, and mesodermal cell types, such as smooth muscle. The mechanisms controlling this cell fate choice are not known. The basic Helix-loop-Helix (bHLH) transcription factor Twist1 is expressed throughout the migratory and post-migratory cardiac neural crest. Twist1 ablation or mutation of the Twist-box causes differentiation of ectopic neuronal cells, which molecularly resemble sympathetic ganglia, in the cardiac outflow tract. Twist1 interacts with the pro-neural factor Sox10 via its Twist-box domain and binds to the Phox2b promoter to repress transcriptional activity. Mesodermal cardiac neural crest trans-differentiation into ectodermal sympathetic ganglia-like neurons is dependent upon Phox2b function. Ectopic Twist1 expression in neural crest precursors disrupts sympathetic neurogenesis. These data demonstrate that Twist1 functions in post-migratory neural crest cells to repress pro-neural factors and thereby regulate cell fate determination between ectodermal and mesodermal lineages.

Loss of Hand2 in a population of Periostin lineage cells results in pronounced bradycardia and neonatal death.

The Periostin Cre (Postn-Cre) lineage includes endocardial and neural crest derived mesenchymal cells of the cardiac cushions, neural crest-derived components of the sympathetic and enteric nervous systems, and cardiac fibroblasts. In this study, we use the Postn-Cre transgenic allele to conditionally ablate Hand2 (H2CKO). We find that Postn-Cre H2CKOs die shortly after birth despite a lack of obvious cardiac structural defects. To ascertain the cause of death, we performed a detailed comparison of the Postn-Cre lineage and Hand2 expression at mid and late stages of embryonic development. Gene expression analyses demonstrate that Postn-Cre ablates Hand2 from the adrenal medulla as well as the sphenopalatine ganglia of the head. In both cases, Hand2 loss-of-function dramatically reduces expression of Dopamine Beta Hydroxylase (Dbh), a gene encoding a crucial catecholaminergic biosynthetic enzyme. Expression of the genes Tyrosine Hydroxylase (Th) and Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (Pnmt), which also encode essential catecholaminergic enzymes, were severely reduced in postnatal adrenal glands. Electrocardiograms demonstrate that 3-day postnatal Postn-Cre H2CKO pups exhibit sinus bradycardia. In conjunction with the aforementioned gene expression analyses, these results strongly suggest that the observed postnatal lethality occurs due to a catecholamine deficiency and subsequent heart failure.

Simple rules for a "simple" nervous system? Molecular and biomathematical approaches to enteric nervous system formation and malformation.

We review morphogenesis of the enteric nervous system from migratory neural crest cells, and defects of this process such as Hirschsprung disease, centering on cell motility and assembly, and cell adhesion and extracellular matrix molecules, along with cell proliferation and growth factors. We then review continuum and agent-based (cellular automata) models with rules of cell movement and logistical proliferation. Both movement and proliferation at the individual cell level are modeled with stochastic components from which stereotyped outcomes emerge at the population level. These models reproduced the wave-like colonization of the intestine by enteric neural crest cells, and several new properties emerged, such as colonization by frontal expansion, which were later confirmed biologically. These models predict a surprising level of clonal heterogeneity both in terms of number and distribution of daughter cells. Biologically, migrating cells form stable chains made up of unstable cells, but this is not seen in the initial model. We outline additional rules for cell differentiation into neurons, axon extension, cell-axon and cell-cell adhesions, chemotaxis and repulsion which can reproduce chain migration. After the migration stage, the cells re-arrange as a network of ganglia. Changes in cell adhesion molecules parallel this, and we describe additional rules based on Steinberg's Differential Adhesion Hypothesis, reflecting changing levels of adhesion in neural crest cells and neurons. This was able to reproduce enteric ganglionation in a model. Mouse mutants with disturbances of enteric nervous system morphogenesis are discussed, and these suggest future refinement of the models. The modeling suggests a relatively simple set of cell behavioral rules could account for complex patterns of morphogenesis. The model has allowed the proposal that Hirschsprung disease is mostly an enteric neural crest cell proliferation defect, not a defect of cell migration. In addition, the model suggests an explanations for zonal and skip segment variants of Hirschsprung disease, and also gives a novel stochastic explanation for the observed discordancy of Hirschsprung disease in identical twins.

Targeted deletion of Hand2 in enteric neural precursor cells affects its functions in neurogenesis, neurotransmitter specification and gangliogenesis, causing functional aganglionosis.

Targeted deletion of the bHLH DNA-binding protein Hand2 in the neural crest, impacts development of the enteric nervous system (ENS), possibly by regulating the transition from neural precursor cell to neuron. We tested this hypothesis by targeting Hand2 deletion in nestin-expressing neural precursor (NEP) cells. The mutant mice showed abnormal ENS development, resulting in lethal neurogenic pseudo-obstruction. Neurogenesis of neurons derived from NEP cells identified a second nestin non-expressing neural precursor (NNEP) cell in the ENS. There was substantial compensation for the loss of neurons derived from the NEP pool by the NNEP pool but this was insufficient to abrogate the negative impact of Hand2 deletion. Hand2-mediated regulation of proliferation affected both neural precursor and neuron numbers. Differentiation of glial cells derived from the NEP cells was significantly decreased with no compensation from the NNEP pool of cells. Our data indicate differential developmental potential of NEPs and NNEPs; NNEPs preferentially differentiate as neurons, whereas NEPs give rise to both neurons and glial cells. Deletion of Hand2 also resulted in complete loss of NOS and VIP and a significant decrease in expression of choline acetyltransferase and calretinin, demonstrating a role for Hand2 in neurotransmitter specification and/or expression. Loss of Hand2 resulted in a marked disruption of the developing neural network, exemplified by lack of a myenteric plexus and extensive overgrowth of fibers. Thus, Hand2 is essential for neurogenesis, neurotransmitter specification and neural network patterning in the developing ENS.

Downregulation of Dlx5 and Dlx6 expression by Hand2 is essential for initiation of tongue morphogenesis.

Lower jaw development is a complex process in which multiple signaling cascades establish a proximal-distal organization. These cascades are regulated both spatially and temporally and are constantly refined through both induction of normal signals and inhibition of inappropriate signals. The connective tissue of the tongue arises from cranial neural crest cell-derived ectomesenchyme within the mandibular portion of the first pharyngeal arch and is likely to be impacted by this signaling. Although the developmental mechanisms behind later aspects of tongue development, including innervation and taste acquisition, have been elucidated, the early patterning signals driving ectomesenchyme into a tongue lineage are largely unknown. We show here that the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor Hand2 plays key roles in establishing the proximal-distal patterning of the mouse lower jaw, in part through establishing a negative-feedback loop in which Hand2 represses Dlx5 and Dlx6 expression in the distal arch ectomesenchyme following Dlx5- and Dlx6-mediated induction of Hand2 expression in the same region. Failure to repress distal Dlx5 and Dlx6 expression results in upregulation of Runx2 expression in the mandibular arch and the subsequent formation of aberrant bone in the lower jaw along with proximal-distal duplications. In addition, there is an absence of lateral lingual swelling expansion, from which the tongue arises, resulting in aglossia. Hand2 thus appears to establish a distal mandibular arch domain that is conducive for lower jaw development, including the initiation of tongue mesenchyme morphogenesis.

A Phox2- and Hand2-dependent Hand1 cis-regulatory element reveals a unique gene dosage requirement for Hand2 during sympathetic neurogenesis.

Neural crest cell specification and differentiation to a sympathetic neuronal fate serves as an important model for neurogenesis and depends upon the function of both bHLH transcription factors, notably Hand2, and homeodomain transcription factors, including Phox2b. Here, we define a 1007 bp cis-regulatory element 5' of the Hand1 gene sufficient to drive reporter expression within the sympathetic chain of transgenic mice. Comparative genomic analyses uncovered evolutionarily conserved consensus-binding sites within this element, which chromatin immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility shift assays confirm are bound by Hand2 and Phox2b. Mutational analyses revealed that the conserved Phox2 and E-box binding sites are necessary for proper cis-regulatory element activity, and expression analyses on both Hand2 conditionally null and hypomorphic backgrounds demonstrate that Hand2 is required for reporter activation in a gene dosage-dependent manner. We demonstrate that Hand2 and Hand1 differentially bind the E-boxes in this cis-regulatory element, establishing molecular differences between these two factors. Finally, we demonstrate that Hand1 is dispensable for normal tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and dopamine ß-hydroxylase (DBH) expression in sympathetic neurons, even when Hand2 gene dosage is concurrently reduced by half. Together, these data define a tissue-specific Hand1 cis-regulatory element controlled by two factors essential for the development of the sympathetic nervous system and provide in vivo regulatory evidence to support previous findings that Hand2, rather than Hand1, is predominantly responsible for regulating TH, DBH, and Hand1 expression in developing sympathetic neurons.

Unique Neural Circuit Connectivity of Mouse Proximal, Middle, and Distal Colon Defines Regional Colonic Motor Patterns.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Colonic motor patterns have been described by a number of different groups, but the neural connectivity and ganglion architecture supporting patterned motor activity have not been elucidated. Our goals were to describe quantitatively, by region, the structural architecture of the mouse enteric nervous system and use functional calcium imaging, pharmacology, and electrical stimulation to show regional underpinnings of different motor patterns. METHODS: Excised colon segments from mice expressing the calcium indicator GCaMP6f or GCaMP6s were used to examine spontaneous and evoked (pharmacologic or electrical) changes in GCaMP-mediated fluorescence and coupled with assessment of colonic motor activity, immunohistochemistry, and confocal imaging. Three-dimensional image reconstruction and statistical methods were used to describe quantitatively mouse colon myenteric ganglion structure, neural and vascular network patterning, and neural connectivity. RESULTS: In intact colon, regionally specific myenteric ganglion size, architecture, and neural circuit connectivity patterns along with neurotransmitter-receptor expression underlie colonic motor patterns that define functional differences along the colon. Region-specific effects on spontaneous, evoked, and chemically induced neural activity contribute to regional motor patterns, as does intraganglionic functional connectivity. We provide direct evidence of neural circuit structural and functional regional differences that have only been inferred in previous investigations. We include regional comparisons between quantitative measures in mouse and human colon that represent an important advance in showing the usefulness and relevance of the mouse system for translation to the human colon. CONCLUSIONS: There are several neural mechanisms dependent on myenteric ganglion architecture and functional connectivity that underlie neurogenic control of patterned motor function in the mouse colon.

Targeted deletion of Hand2 in cardiac neural crest-derived cells influences cardiac gene expression and outflow tract development.

The basic helix-loop-helix DNA binding protein Hand2 has critical functions in cardiac development both in neural crest-derived and mesoderm-derived structures. Targeted deletion of Hand2 in the neural crest has allowed us to genetically dissect Hand2-dependent defects specifically in outflow tract and cardiac cushion independent of Hand2 functions in mesoderm-derived structures. Targeted deletion of Hand2 in the neural crest results in misalignment of the aortic arch arteries and outflow tract, contributing to development of double outlet right ventricle (DORV) and ventricular septal defects (VSD). These neural crest-derived developmental anomalies are associated with altered expression of Hand2-target genes we have identified by gene profiling. A number of Hand2 direct target genes have been identified using ChIP and ChIP-on-chip analyses. We have identified and validated a number of genes related to cell migration, proliferation/cell cycle and intracellular signaling whose expression is affected by Hand2 deletion in the neural crest and which are associated with development of VSD and DORV. Our data suggest that Hand2 is a multifunctional DNA binding protein affecting expression of target genes associated with a number of functional interactions in neural crest-derived cells required for proper patterning of the outflow tract, generation of the appropriate number of neural crest-derived cells for elongation of the conotruncus and cardiac cushion organization. Our genetic model has made it possible to investigate the molecular genetics of neural crest contributions to outflow tract morphogenesis and cell differentiation.

Synaptic Components, Function and Modulation Characterized by GCaMP6f Ca2+ Imaging in Mouse Cholinergic Myenteric Ganglion Neurons.

The peristaltic contraction and relaxation of intestinal circular and longitudinal smooth muscles is controlled by synaptic circuit elements that impinge upon phenotypically diverse neurons in the myenteric plexus. While electrophysiological studies provide useful information concerning the properties of such synaptic circuits, they typically involve tissue disruption and do not correlate circuit activity with biochemically defined neuronal phenotypes. To overcome these limitations, mice were engineered to express the sensitive, fast Ca2+ indicator GCaMP6f selectively in neurons that express the acetylcholine (ACh) biosynthetic enzyme choline acetyltransfarse (ChAT) thereby allowing rapid activity-driven changes in Ca2+ fluorescence to be observed without disrupting intrinsic connections, solely in cholinergic myenteric ganglion (MG) neurons. Experiments with selective receptor agonists and antagonists reveal that most mouse colonic cholinergic (i.e., GCaMP6f+/ChAT+) MG neurons express nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs), particularly the ganglionic subtype containing α3 and ß4 subunits, and most express ionotropic serotonin receptors (5-HT3Rs). Cholinergic MG neurons also display small, spontaneous Ca2+ transients occurring at ≈ 0.2 Hz. Experiments with inhibitors of Na+ channel dependent impulses, presynaptic Ca2+ channels and postsynaptic receptor function reveal that the Ca2+ transients arise from impulse-driven presynaptic activity and subsequent activation of postsynaptic nAChRs or 5-HT3Rs. Electrical stimulation of axonal connectives to MG evoked Ca2+ responses in the neurons that similarly depended on nAChRs or/and 5-HT3Rs. Responses to single connective shocks had peak amplitudes and rise and decay times that were indistinguishable from the spontaneous Ca2+ transients and the largest fraction had brief synaptic delays consistent with activation by monosynaptic inputs. These results indicate that the spontaneous Ca2+ transients and stimulus evoked Ca2+ responses in MG neurons originate in circuits involving fast chemical synaptic transmission mediated by nAChRs or/and 5-HT3Rs. Experiments with an α7-nAChR agonist and antagonist, and with pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) reveal that the same synaptic circuits display extensive capacity for presynaptic modulation. Our use of non-invasive GCaMP6f/ChAT Ca2+ imaging in colon segments with intrinsic connections preserved, reveals an abundance of direct and modulatory synaptic influences on cholinergic MG neurons.

scRNA-Seq Reveals New Enteric Nervous System Roles for GDNF, NRTN, and TBX3.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Bowel function requires coordinated activity of diverse enteric neuron subtypes. Our aim was to define gene expression in these neuron subtypes to facilitate development of novel therapeutic approaches to treat devastating enteric neuropathies, and to learn more about enteric nervous system function. METHODS: To identify subtype-specific genes, we performed single-nucleus RNA-seq on adult mouse and human colon myenteric plexus, and single-cell RNA-seq on E17.5 mouse ENS cells from whole bowel. We used immunohistochemistry, select mutant mice, and calcium imaging to validate and extend results. RESULTS: RNA-seq on 635 adult mouse colon myenteric neurons and 707 E17.5 neurons from whole bowel defined seven adult neuron subtypes, eight E17.5 neuron subtypes and hundreds of differentially expressed genes. Manually dissected human colon myenteric plexus yielded RNA-seq data from 48 neurons, 3798 glia, 5568 smooth muscle, 377 interstitial cells of Cajal, and 2153 macrophages. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated differential expression for BNC2, PBX3, SATB1, RBFOX1, TBX2, and TBX3 in enteric neuron subtypes. Conditional Tbx3 loss reduced NOS1-expressing myenteric neurons. Differential Gfra1 and Gfra2 expression coupled with calcium imaging revealed that GDNF and neurturin acutely and differentially regulate activity of ∼50% of myenteric neurons with distinct effects on smooth muscle contractions. CONCLUSION: Single cell analyses defined genes differentially expressed in myenteric neuron subtypes and new roles for TBX3, GDNF and NRTN. These data facilitate molecular diagnostic studies and novel therapeutics for bowel motility disorders.

The bHLH transcription factor Hand2 is essential for the maintenance of noradrenergic properties in differentiated sympathetic neurons.

The basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor Hand2 is essential for the proliferation and noradrenergic differentiation of sympathetic neuron precursors during development. Here we address the function of Hand2 in postmitotic, differentiated sympathetic neurons. Knockdown of endogenous Hand2 in cultured E12 chick sympathetic neurons by siRNA results in a significant (about 60%) decrease in the expression of the noradrenergic marker genes dopamine-beta-hydroxylase (DBH) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). In contrast, expression of the pan-neuronal genes TuJ1, HuC and SCG10 was not affected. To analyze the in vivo role of Hand2 in differentiated sympathetic neurons we used mice harboring a conditional Hand2-null allele and excised the gene by expression of Cre recombinase under control of the DBH promotor. Mouse embryos homozygous for Hand2 gene deletion showed decreased sympathetic neuron number and TH expression was strongly reduced in the residual neuron population. The in vitro Hand2 knockdown also enhances the CNTF-induced expression of the cholinergic marker genes vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). Taken together, these findings demonstrate that the Hand2 transcription factor plays a key role in maintaining noradrenergic properties in differentiated neurons.

Cryptochromes Mediate Intrinsic Photomechanical Transduction in Avian Iris and Somatic Striated Muscle.

Irises isolated from the eyes of diverse species constrict when exposed to light. Depending on species this intrinsic photomechanical transduction response (PMTR) requires either melanopsin or cryptochrome (CRY) photopigment proteins, generated by their respective association with retinoid or flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) chromophores. Although developmentally relevant circadian rhythms are also synchronized and reset by these same proteins, the cell type, mechanism, and specificity of photomechanical transduction (PMT) and its relationship to circadian processes remain poorly understood. Here we show that PMTRs consistent with CRY activation by 430 nm blue light occur in developing chicken iris striated muscle, identify relevant mechanisms, and demonstrate that similar PMTRs occur in striated iris and pectoral muscle fibers, prevented in both cases by knocking down CRY gene transcript levels. Supporting CRY activation, iris PMTRs were reduced by inhibiting flavin reductase, but unaffected by melanopsin antagonism. The largest iris PMTRs paralleled the developmental predominance of striated over smooth muscle fibers, and shared their requirement for extracellular Ca2+ influx and release of intracellular Ca2+. Photo-stimulation of identified striated myotubes maintained in dissociated culture revealed the cellular and molecular bases of PMT. Myotubes in iris cell cultures responded to 435 nm light with increased intracellular Ca2+ and contractions, mimicking iris PMTRs and their spectral sensitivity. Interestingly PMTRs featuring contractions and requiring extracellular Ca2+ influx and release of intracellular Ca2+ were also displayed by striated myotubes derived from pectoral muscle. Consistent with these findings, cytosolic CRY1 and CRY2 proteins were detected in both iris and pectoral myotubes, and knocking down myotube CRY1/CRY2 gene transcript levels specifically blocked PMTRs in both cases. Thus CRY-mediated PMT is not unique to iris, but instead reflects a more general feature of developing striated muscle fibers. Because CRYs are core timing components of circadian clocks and CRY2 is critical for circadian regulation of myogenic differentiation CRY-mediated PMT may interact with cell autonomous clocks to influence the progression of striated muscle development.

Conditional deletion of Hand2 reveals critical functions in neurogenesis and cell type-specific gene expression for development of neural crest-derived noradrenergic sympathetic ganglion neurons.

Neural crest-derived structures that depend critically upon expression of the basic helix-loop-helix DNA binding protein Hand2 for normal development include craniofacial cartilage and bone, the outflow tract of the heart, cardiac cushion, and noradrenergic sympathetic ganglion neurons. Loss of Hand2 is embryonic lethal by E9.5, obviating a genetic analysis of its in-vivo function. We have overcome this difficulty by specific deletion of Hand2 in neural crest-derived cells by crossing our line of floxed Hand2 mice with Wnt1-Cre transgenic mice. Our analysis of Hand2 knock-out in neural crest-derived cells reveals effects on development in all neural crest-derived structures where Hand2 is expressed. In the autonomic nervous system, conditional disruption of Hand2 results in a significant and progressive loss of neurons as well as a significant loss of TH expression. Hand2 affects generation of the neural precursor pool of cells by affecting both the proliferative capacity of the progenitors as well as affecting expression of Phox2a and Gata3, DNA binding proteins important for the cell autonomous development of noradrenergic neurons. Our data suggest that Hand2 is a multifunctional DNA binding protein affecting differentiation and cell type-specific gene expression in neural crest-derived noradrenergic sympathetic ganglion neurons. Hand2 has a pivotal function in a non-linear cross-regulatory network of DNA binding proteins that affect cell autonomous control of differentiation and cell type-specific gene expression.

The endocrine-disrupting compound, nonylphenol, inhibits neurotrophin-dependent neurite outgrowth.

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) may interfere with neuronal development due to high levels of accumulation in biological tissue and potentially aberrant steroid signaling. Treatment of dissociated embryonic Xenopus spinal cord neurons with the EDC, nonylphenol (NP), did not alter cell survival or neurite outgrowth but inhibited neurotrophin-induced neurite outgrowth, effects that were recapitulated by treatment with comparable concentrations of 17 beta-estradiol (E2) and beta-estradiol 6-(O-carboxy-methyl)oxime: BSA (E2-BSA), but not a synthetic androgen. Effects of NP were not inhibited by the nuclear estrogen receptor antagonist, ICI 182,780, but were inhibited by the G protein antagonist, pertussis toxin. Nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced neurite outgrowth in Xenopus neurons was shown to require MAPK signaling. NP did not affect TrkA expression, MAPK signaling, or phosphatidylinositol 3' kinase-Akt-glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (PI3K-Akt-GSK3 beta) signaling in Xenopus. The ability of NP to inhibit NGF-induced neurite outgrowth without altering survival was recapitulated in the rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cell line. As with Xenopus neurons, the inhibitory actions of NP in PC12 cells were not antagonized by ICI 182,780 and did not involve alterations in signaling along either the MAPK or PI3K-Akt-GSK3 beta pathways. NP did significantly inhibit the ability of NGF to increase protein kinase A activity in this cell line. These data have important implications with respect to potentially deleterious effects of NP exposure during early neural development and highlight the fact that bioaccumulation of EDCs, such as NP, may elicit very disparate effects along divergent signaling pathways than those that arise from the actions of physiological levels of endogenous estrogens.

Perspectives on integration of cell extrinsic and cell intrinsic pathways of signaling required for differentiation of noradrenergic sympathetic ganglion neurons.

This review presents an analysis of current research aimed at deciphering the interplay of cell extrinsic and intrinsic signals required for specification and differentiation of noradrenergic sympathetic ganglion neurons. The development of noradrenergic sympathetic ganglion neurons depends upon expression of a core set of DNA regulatory molecules, including the Phox2 homeodomain proteins and the basic helix-loop-helix proteins, HAND2 and MASH1 whose expression is dependent upon cell extrinsic cues. Both bone morphogenetic protein(s) and cAMP have an integral role in the specification/differentiation of noradrenergic sympathetic ganglion neurons but how signaling downstream of these molecules is integrated and identification of their particular functions is just beginning to be elucidated. Data currently available suggests a model with BMP providing both instructive and permissive cues in a pathway integrated by cAMP and MAPK by activation of both canonical and non-canonical intracellular signaling cascades.