NOTCH2 in breast cancer: association of SNP rs11249433 with gene expression in ER-positive breast tumors without TP53 mutations.

BACKGROUND: A recent genome-wide association study (GWAS) has identified a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs11249433 in the 1p11.2 region as a novel genetic risk factor for breast cancer, and this association was stronger in patients with estrogen receptor (ER)+ versus ER- cancer. RESULTS: We found association between SNP rs11249433 and expression of the NOTCH2 gene located in the 1p11.2 region. Examined in 180 breast tumors, the expression of NOTCH2 was found to be lowest in tumors with TP53 mutations and highest in TP53 wild-type/ER+ tumors (p = 0.0059). In the latter group, the NOTCH2 expression was particularly increased in carriers of the risk genotypes (AG/GG) of rs11249433 when compared to the non-risk AA genotype (p = 0.0062). Similar association between NOTCH2 expression and rs11249433 was observed in 60 samples of purified monocytes from healthy controls (p = 0.015), but not in total blood samples from 302 breast cancer patients and 76 normal breast tissue samples. We also identified the first possible dominant-negative form of NOTCH2, a truncated version of NOTCH2 consisting of only the extracellular domain. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to show that the expression of NOTCH2 differs in subgroups of breast tumors and by genotypes of the breast cancer-associated SNP rs11249433. The NOTCH pathway has key functions in stem cell differentiation of ER+ luminal cells in the breast. Therefore, increased expression of NOTCH2 in carriers of rs11249433 may promote development of ER+ luminal tumors. Further studies are needed to investigate possible mechanisms of regulation of NOTCH2 expression by rs11249433 and the role of NOTCH2 splicing forms in breast cancer development.

Association of MTHFR gene polymorphisms with breast cancer survival.

BACKGROUND: Two functional single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene, C677T and A1298C, lead to decreased enzyme activity and affect chemosensitivity of tumor cells. We investigated whether these MTHFR SNPs were associated with breast cancer survival in African-American and Caucasian women. METHODS: African-American (n = 143) and Caucasian (n = 105) women, who had incident breast cancer with surgery, were recruited between 1993 and 2003 from the greater Baltimore area, Maryland, USA. Kaplan-Meier survival and multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were used to examine the relationship between MTHFR SNPs and disease-specific survival. RESULTS: We observed opposite effects of the MTHFR polymorphisms A1298C and C677T on breast cancer survival. Carriers of the variant allele at codon 1298 (A/C or C/C) had reduced survival when compared to homozygous carriers of the common A allele [Hazard ratio (HR) = 2.05; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.05-4.00]. In contrast, breast cancer patients with the variant allele at codon 677 (C/T or T/T) had improved survival, albeit not statistically significant, when compared to individuals with the common C/C genotype (HR = 0.65; 95% CI, 0.31-1.35). The effects were stronger in patients with estrogen receptor-negative tumors (HR = 2.70; 95% CI, 1.17-6.23 for A/C or C/C versus A/A at codon 1298; HR = 0.36; 95% CI, 0.12-1.04 for C/T or T/T versus C/C at codon 677). Interactions between the two MTHFR genotypes and race/ethnicity on breast cancer survival were also observed (A1298C, pinteraction = 0.088; C677T, pinteraction = 0.026). CONCLUSION: We found that the MTHFR SNPs, C677T and A1298C, were associated with breast cancer survival. The variant alleles had opposite effects on disease outcome in the study population. Race/ethnicity modified the association between the two SNPs and breast cancer survival.

Differences in the tumor microenvironment between African-American and European-American breast cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: African-American breast cancer patients experience higher mortality rates than European-American patients despite having a lower incidence of the disease. We tested the hypothesis that intrinsic differences in the tumor biology may contribute to this cancer health disparity. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using laser capture microdissection, we examined genome-wide mRNA expression specific to tumor epithelium and tumor stroma in 18 African-American and 17 European-American patients. Numerous genes were differentially expressed between these two patient groups and a two-gene signature in the tumor epithelium distinguished between them. To identify the biological processes in tumors that are different by race/ethnicity, Gene Ontology and disease association analyses were performed. Several biological processes were identified which may contribute to enhanced disease aggressiveness in African-American patients, including angiogenesis and chemotaxis. African-American tumors also contained a prominent interferon signature. The role of angiogenesis in the tumor biology of African-Americans was further investigated by examining the extent of vascularization and macrophage infiltration in an expanded set of 248 breast tumors. Immunohistochemistry revealed that microvessel density and macrophage infiltration is higher in tumors of African-Americans than in tumors of European-Americans. Lastly, using an in silico approach, we explored the potential of tailored treatment options for African-American patients based on their gene expression profile. This exploratory approach generated lists of therapeutics that may have specific antagonistic activity against tumors of African-American patients, e.g., sirolimus, resveratrol, and chlorpromazine in estrogen receptor-negative tumors. CONCLUSIONS: The gene expression profiles of breast tumors indicate that differences in tumor biology may exist between African-American and European-American patients beyond the knowledge of current markers. Notably, pathways related to tumor angiogenesis and chemotaxis could be functionally different in these two patient groups.

A mitochondrial target sequence polymorphism in manganese superoxide dismutase predicts inferior survival in breast cancer patients treated with cyclophosphamide.

PURPOSE: Manganese superoxide dismutase protects against oxidative damage and modulates the efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs. A functional single-nucleotide polymorphism in codon 16 of SOD2 (rs4880), which encodes manganese superoxide dismutase, results in a substitution of valine by alanine (Val16Ala). We hypothesized that this single-nucleotide polymorphism affects breast cancer survival of patients receiving chemotherapy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Two patient populations from the United States (n = 248) and Norway (n = 340) were genotyped for Val16Ala. Kaplan-Meier survival and Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were used to examine the relationship between Val16Ala and disease-specific survival. RESULTS: Val16Ala was significantly associated with breast cancer outcome in both patient populations. Carriers of the Ala allele had inferior survival rates in the multivariate analysis [hazard ratio (HR), 2.44 and 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.11-5.37 in U.S. cohort; HR, 1.91 and 95% CI, 1.06-3.45 in Norway cohort for Ala/Ala versus Val/Val]. In an analysis of the combined cohorts, this association was significant for patients receiving adjuvant therapy (HR, 2.47; 95% CI, 1.46-4.19), but not for patients without it (HR, 1.47; 95% CI, 0.57-3.74). After further stratification by type of chemotherapy, the effect of the Ala allele was mostly restricted to cyclophosphamide-containing chemotherapy regimens (HR, 22.0; 95% CI, 5.22-92.9; Ala/Ala versus Val/Val). CONCLUSION: The Val16Ala polymorphism affects survival of patients receiving cyclophosphamide-containing chemotherapy. The findings provide the first evidence pointing toward a mechanism for cyclophosphamide resistance in breast cancer patients.

Tumor immunobiological differences in prostate cancer between African-American and European-American men.

The incidence and mortality rates of prostate cancer are significantly higher in African-American men when compared with European-American men. We tested the hypothesis that differences in tumor biology contribute to this survival health disparity. Using microarray technology, we obtained gene expression profiles of primary prostate tumors resected from 33 African-American and 36 European-American patients. These tumors were matched on clinical variables. We also evaluated 18 nontumor prostate tissues from seven African-American and 11 European-American patients. The resulting datasets were analyzed for expression differences on the gene and pathway level comparing African-American with European-American patients. Our analysis revealed a significant number of genes, e.g., 162 transcripts at a false-discovery rate of

Genomic profiling of microRNA and messenger RNA reveals deregulated microRNA expression in prostate cancer.

MicroRNAs are small noncoding RNAs that regulate the expression of protein-coding genes. To evaluate the involvement of microRNAs in prostate cancer, we determined genome-wide expression of microRNAs and mRNAs in 60 primary prostate tumors and 16 nontumor prostate tissues. The mRNA analysis revealed that key components of microRNA processing and several microRNA host genes, e.g., MCM7 and C9orf5, were significantly up-regulated in prostate tumors. Consistent with these findings, tumors expressed the miR-106b-25 cluster, which maps to intron 13 of MCM7, and miR-32, which maps to intron 14 of C9orf5, at significantly higher levels than nontumor prostate. The expression levels of other microRNAs, including a number of miR-106b-25 cluster homologues, were also altered in prostate tumors. Additional differences in microRNA abundance were found between organ-confined tumors and those with extraprostatic disease extension. Lastly, we found evidence that some microRNAs are androgen-regulated and that tumor microRNAs influence transcript abundance of protein-coding target genes in the cancerous prostate. In cell culture, E2F1 and p21/WAF1 were identified as targets of miR-106b, Bim of miR-32, and exportin-6 and protein tyrosine kinase 9 of miR-1. In summary, microRNA expression becomes altered with the development and progression of prostate cancer. Some of these microRNAs regulate the expression of cancer-related genes in prostate cancer cells.

Expression of microRNAs and protein-coding genes associated with perineural invasion in prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Perineural invasion (PNI) is the dominant pathway for local invasion in prostate cancer. To date, only few studies have investigated the molecular differences between prostate tumors with PNI and those without it. METHODS: To evaluate the involvement of both microRNAs and protein-coding genes in PNI, we determined their genome-wide expression with a custom microRNA microarray and Affymetrix GeneChips in 50 prostate adenocarcinomas with PNI and 7 without it. In situ hybridization (ISH) and immunohistochemistry was used to validate candidate genes. RESULTS: Unsupervised classification of the 57 adenocarcinomas revealed two clusters of tumors with distinct global microRNA expression. One cluster contained all non-PNI tumors and a subgroup of PNI tumors. Significance analysis of microarray data yielded a list of microRNAs associated with PNI. At a false discovery rate (FDR)<10%, 19 microRNAs were higher expressed in PNI tumors than in non-PNI tumors. The most differently expressed microRNA was miR-224. ISH showed that this microRNA is expressed by perineural cancer cells. The analysis of protein-coding genes identified 34 transcripts that were differently expressed by PNI status (FDR<10%). These transcripts were down-regulated in PNI tumors. Many of those encoded metallothioneins and proteins with mitochondrial localization and involvement in cell metabolism. Consistent with the microarray data, perineural cancer cells tended to have lower metallothionein expression by immunohistochemistry than nonperineural cancer cells. CONCLUSIONS: Although preliminary, our findings suggest that alterations in microRNA expression, mitochondrial function, and cell metabolism occur at the transition from a noninvasive prostate tumor to a tumor with PNI.

The mannose-binding lectin (MBL2) haplotype and breast cancer: an association study in African-American and Caucasian women.

Common genetic variants in cancer-related genes contribute to breast cancer. The innate immune system plays a crucial role in the immune surveillance against malignancies, thus it is plausible that genetic variations in key genes of the innate immunity such as the mannose-binding lectin (MBL), MBL2, could influence the risk for breast cancer. We investigated the association of MBL2 genotypes with breast cancer and conducted a comprehensive genotype and haplotype analysis of 26 MBL2 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in a case-control study of breast cancer [166 African-American (AA) case patients versus 180 controls and 127 Caucasian (CAU) case patients versus 137 controls]. We observed that the A allele of the 3'-UTR SNP Ex4-1067 (NCBI SNP ID: rs10824792) was significantly associated with a decreased disease risk in AA women [odds ratio (OR) = 0.47, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.27-0.81]. Haplotype analysis of MBL2 showed that the frequency of the corresponding 3' haplotype TATAAC (Ex4-1483, Ex4-1067, Ex4-1047, Ex4-901, Ex4-710, 3238bp 3' STP) was lower in cases than controls among AA women (0.15 versus 0.21; P = 0.02) suggesting a protective effect after adjusting for covariates (OR = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.29-0.88, P = 0.018). In conclusion, this study presents preliminary evidence that common genetic variants in the 3'-UTR of MBL2 might influence the risk for breast cancer in AA women, probably in interaction with the 5' secretor haplotypes that are associated with high concentrations of MBL.

Inflammation and IGF-I activate the Akt pathway in breast cancer.

Akt signaling may promote breast cancer progression and poor disease outcome. We hypothesized that serum insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and a proinflammatory tumor environment induce phosphorylation of Akt and downstream targets of Akt in breast cancer. We studied the relationship between Akt pathway activation, IGF-I and markers of inflammation, e.g., nitric oxide synthase-2 (NOS2), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) and tumor phagocyte density, in 248 breast tumors. We also examined the association of Akt phosphorylation with breast cancer survival. We observed that phosphorylation of Akt, BAD and caspase-9 correlated strongly with the expression of the 2 proinflammatory enzymes, NOS2 and COX2, in breast tumors (p < 0.001; Spearman rank correlation). Both NOS2 and COX2 expression were independently associated with Akt phosphorylation in the multivariate analysis. Serum IGF-I concentrations and the IGF-I/IGFBP3 ratio correlated with Akt phosphorylation at Thr308 and Ser473 in breast tumors (p

Association of breast cancer outcome with status of p53 and MDM2 SNP309.

BACKGROUND: A common single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the promoter region of the MDM2 gene, known as T-309G and referred to as SNP309 for this study, leads to increased expression of Mdm2 protein and attenuated function of the p53 tumor suppressor protein. We investigated whether genetic variants in MDM2 were associated with breast cancer incidence and survival and whether the variant status could interact with the tumor p53 status to modify breast cancer survival. METHODS: We used multivariable logistic and Cox regression analyses to study the relationship of SNP309 status and the status of a second MDM2 SNP in exon 12 at codon 354 (SNP354) with breast cancer incidence and with disease-specific survival among 293 case patients and 317 cancer-free control subjects. Survival analysis included 248 of the 293 case patients who had known tumor p53 status. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: We did not observe an association between SNP309 status and breast cancer incidence in the unstratified analysis, but we did find a statistically significant association between SNP354 status and breast cancer incidence (odds ratio = 3.34, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.88 to 5.93). We also discovered a statistically significant interaction between SNP309 status and tumor p53 expression for breast cancer survival (P(interaction) = .002). Among homozygous carriers of the common MDM2 SNP309 allele (T/T), a mutant p53 status (risk ratio [RR] of death = 2.33, 95% CI = 1.08 to 5.03) and aberrant p53 protein expression (RR = 2.61, 95% CI = 1.22 to 5.57) in breast tumors were associated with poor survival. Tumor p53 status was not associated with breast cancer survival among carriers of the variant MDM2 SNP309 allele (G/T or G/G), which is consistent with a dominant effect of the variant allele. CONCLUSION: A strong interaction between SNP309 status and tumor p53 status appears to modify the association between p53 status and breast cancer survival.