RESUMO
Primary cilia are key sensory organelles that are thought to be disassembled prior to mitosis. Inheritance of the mother centriole, which nucleates the primary cilium, in relation to asymmetric daughter cell behavior has previously been studied. However, the fate of the ciliary membrane upon cell division is unknown. Here, we followed the ciliary membrane in dividing embryonic neocortical stem cells and cultured cells. Ciliary membrane attached to the mother centriole was endocytosed at mitosis onset, persisted through mitosis at one spindle pole, and was asymmetrically inherited by one daughter cell, which retained stem cell character. This daughter re-established a primary cilium harboring an activated signal transducer earlier than the noninheriting daughter. Centrosomal association of ciliary membrane in dividing neural stem cells decreased at late neurogenesis when these cells differentiate. Our data imply that centrosome-associated ciliary membrane acts as a determinant for the temporal-spatial control of ciliogenesis.
Assuntos
Divisão Celular , Cílios/metabolismo , Células-Tronco Neurais/citologia , Fatores de Ribosilação do ADP , Animais , Centríolos/metabolismo , Centrossomo/metabolismo , Células HEK293 , Humanos , Camundongos , Mitose , Células-Tronco Neurais/metabolismoRESUMO
Neural stem and progenitor cells have a central role in the development and evolution of the mammalian neocortex. In this review, we first provide a set of criteria to classify the various types of cortical stem and progenitor cells. We then discuss the issue of cell polarity, as well as specific subcellular features of these cells that are relevant for their modes of division and daughter cell fate. In addition, cortical stem and progenitor cell behavior is placed into a tissue context, with consideration of extracellular signals and cell-cell interactions. Finally, the differences across species regarding cortical stem and progenitor cells are dissected to gain insight into key developmental and evolutionary mechanisms underlying neocortex expansion.
Assuntos
Neocórtex/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Neurogênese/fisiologia , Animais , Divisão Celular Assimétrica , Compartimento Celular , Linhagem da Célula , Membrana Celular/fisiologia , Núcleo Celular/fisiologia , Polaridade Celular , Líquido Cefalorraquidiano/fisiologia , Humanos , Junções Intercelulares/fisiologia , Ventrículos Laterais/embriologia , Lipídeos de Membrana/metabolismo , Microglia/fisiologia , Mitose , Neocórtex/citologia , Neocórtex/embriologia , Células-Tronco Neurais/classificação , Células-Tronco Neurais/fisiologia , Células Neuroepiteliais/citologia , Células Neuroepiteliais/fisiologia , Neurônios/fisiologia , Organelas/fisiologia , Especificidade da EspécieRESUMO
The generation of neurons in the developing neocortex is a major determinant of neocortex size. Crucially, the increase in cortical neuron numbers in the primate lineage, notably in the upper-layer neurons, contributes to increased cognitive abilities. Here, we review major evolutionary changes affecting the apical progenitors in the ventricular zone and focus on the key germinal zone constituting the foundation of neocortical neurogenesis in primates, the outer subventricular zone (OSVZ). We summarize characteristic features of the OSVZ and its key stem cell type, the basal (or outer) radial glia. Next, we concentrate on primate-specific and human-specific genes, expressed in OSVZ-progenitors, the ability of which to amplify these progenitors by targeting the regulation of the cell cycle ultimately underlies the evolutionary increase in upper-layer neurons. Finally, we address likely differences in neocortical development between present-day humans and Neanderthals that are based on human-specific amino acid substitutions in proteins operating in cortical progenitors.
Assuntos
Neocórtex , Neuroglia , Animais , Humanos , Neuroglia/metabolismo , Neocórtex/metabolismo , Neurônios/metabolismo , Células-Tronco , Primatas/genética , Neurogênese/genéticaRESUMO
Neocortex expansion during human evolution provides a basis for our enhanced cognitive abilities. Yet, which genes implicated in neocortex expansion are actually responsible for higher cognitive abilities is unknown. The expression of human-specific ARHGAP11B in embryonic/foetal mouse, ferret and marmoset neocortex was previously found to promote basal progenitor proliferation, upper-layer neuron generation and neocortex expansion during development, features commonly thought to contribute to increased cognitive abilities. However, a key question is whether this phenotype persists into adulthood and if so, whether cognitive abilities are indeed increased. Here, we generated a transgenic mouse line with physiological ARHGAP11B expression that exhibits increased neocortical size and upper-layer neuron numbers persisting into adulthood. Adult ARHGAP11B-transgenic mice showed altered neurobehaviour, notably increased memory flexibility and a reduced anxiety level. Our data are consistent with the notion that neocortex expansion by ARHGAP11B, a gene implicated in human evolution, underlies some of the altered neurobehavioural features observed in the transgenic mice, such as the increased memory flexibility, a neocortex-associated trait, with implications for the increase in cognitive abilities during human evolution.
Assuntos
Proteínas Ativadoras de GTPase/metabolismo , Memória/fisiologia , Neocórtex/metabolismo , Neocórtex/fisiologia , Neurônios/metabolismo , Neurônios/fisiologia , Animais , Ansiedade/metabolismo , Ansiedade/fisiopatologia , Evolução Biológica , Proliferação de Células/fisiologia , Cognição/fisiologia , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Transgênicos , Neurogênese/fisiologiaRESUMO
The role of WNT/ß-catenin signalling in mouse neocortex development remains ambiguous. Most studies demonstrate that WNT/ß-catenin regulates progenitor self-renewal but others suggest it can also promote differentiation. Here we explore the role of WNT/STOP signalling, which stabilizes proteins during G2/M by inhibiting glycogen synthase kinase (GSK3)-mediated protein degradation. We show that mice mutant for cyclin Y and cyclin Y-like 1 (Ccny/l1), key regulators of WNT/STOP signalling, display reduced neurogenesis in the developing neocortex. Specifically, basal progenitors, which exhibit delayed cell cycle progression, were drastically decreased. Ccny/l1-deficient apical progenitors show reduced asymmetric division due to an increase in apical-basal astral microtubules. We identify the neurogenic transcription factors Sox4 and Sox11 as direct GSK3 targets that are stabilized by WNT/STOP signalling in basal progenitors during mitosis and that promote neuron generation. Our work reveals that WNT/STOP signalling drives cortical neurogenesis and identifies mitosis as a critical phase for neural progenitor fate.
Assuntos
Mitose , Neocórtex/embriologia , Neocórtex/metabolismo , Neurogênese , Via de Sinalização Wnt , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Animais , Biomarcadores , Ciclo Celular , Diferenciação Celular/genética , Ciclinas/genética , Ciclinas/metabolismo , Embrião de Mamíferos , Imunofluorescência , Expressão Gênica , Quinase 3 da Glicogênio Sintase/metabolismo , Imuno-Histoquímica , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Mitose/genética , Células-Tronco Neurais/citologia , Células-Tronco Neurais/metabolismo , Neurogênese/genética , Fosforilação , Fatores de Transcrição SOXC/genética , Fatores de Transcrição SOXC/metabolismoRESUMO
Integrating independent but converging lines of research on brain function and neurodevelopment across scales, this article proposes that serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) signalling is an evolutionary and developmental driver and potent modulator of the macroscale functional organization of the human cerebral cortex. A wealth of evidence indicates that the anatomical and functional organization of the cortex follows a unimodal-to-transmodal gradient. Situated at the apex of this processing hierarchy-where it plays a central role in the integrative processes underpinning complex, human-defining cognition-the transmodal cortex has disproportionately expanded across human development and evolution. Notably, the adult human transmodal cortex is especially rich in 5-HT2AR expression and recent evidence suggests that, during early brain development, 5-HT2AR signalling on neural progenitor cells stimulates their proliferation-a critical process for evolutionarily-relevant cortical expansion. Drawing on multimodal neuroimaging and cross-species investigations, we argue that, by contributing to the expansion of the human cortex and being prevalent at the apex of its hierarchy in the adult brain, 5-HT2AR signalling plays a major role in both human cortical expansion and functioning. Owing to its unique excitatory and downstream cellular effects, neuronal 5-HT2AR agonism promotes neuroplasticity, learning and cognitive and psychological flexibility in a context-(hyper)sensitive manner with therapeutic potential. Overall, we delineate a dual role of 5-HT2ARs in enabling both the expansion and modulation of the human transmodal cortex.
Assuntos
Córtex Cerebral , Receptor 5-HT2A de Serotonina , Adulto , Humanos , Encéfalo , Córtex Cerebral/fisiologia , Cognição/fisiologia , NeuroimagemRESUMO
The human brain has undergone substantial change since humans diverged from chimpanzees and the other great apes1,2. However, the genetic and developmental programs that underlie this divergence are not fully understood. Here we have analysed stem cell-derived cerebral organoids using single-cell transcriptomics and accessible chromatin profiling to investigate gene-regulatory changes that are specific to humans. We first analysed cell composition and reconstructed differentiation trajectories over the entire course of human cerebral organoid development from pluripotency, through neuroectoderm and neuroepithelial stages, followed by divergence into neuronal fates within the dorsal and ventral forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain regions. Brain-region composition varied in organoids from different iPSC lines, but regional gene-expression patterns remained largely reproducible across individuals. We analysed chimpanzee and macaque cerebral organoids and found that human neuronal development occurs at a slower pace relative to the other two primates. Using pseudotemporal alignment of differentiation paths, we found that human-specific gene expression resolved to distinct cell states along progenitor-to-neuron lineages in the cortex. Chromatin accessibility was dynamic during cortex development, and we identified divergence in accessibility between human and chimpanzee that correlated with human-specific gene expression and genetic change. Finally, we mapped human-specific expression in adult prefrontal cortex using single-nucleus RNA sequencing analysis and identified developmental differences that persist into adulthood, as well as cell-state-specific changes that occur exclusively in the adult brain. Our data provide a temporal cell atlas of great ape forebrain development, and illuminate dynamic gene-regulatory features that are unique to humans.
Assuntos
Encéfalo , Genômica , Organoides/citologia , Células-Tronco Pluripotentes/citologia , Células-Tronco Pluripotentes/fisiologia , Animais , Evolução Biológica , Encéfalo/citologia , Encéfalo/embriologia , Encéfalo/fisiologia , Humanos , Macaca , Pan troglodytes , Análise de Célula Única , Especificidade da EspécieRESUMO
The expansion of brain size is accompanied by a relative enlargement of the subventricular zone during development. Epithelial-like neural stem cells divide in the ventricular zone at the ventricles of the embryonic brain, self-renew and generate basal progenitors1 that delaminate and settle in the subventricular zone in enlarged brain regions2. The length of time that cells stay in the subventricular zone is essential for controlling further amplification and fate determination. Here we show that the interphase centrosome protein AKNA has a key role in this process. AKNA localizes at the subdistal appendages of the mother centriole in specific subtypes of neural stem cells, and in almost all basal progenitors. This protein is necessary and sufficient to organize centrosomal microtubules, and promote their nucleation and growth. These features of AKNA are important for mediating the delamination process in the formation of the subventricular zone. Moreover, AKNA regulates the exit from the subventricular zone, which reveals the pivotal role of centrosomal microtubule organization in enabling cells to both enter and remain in the subventricular zone. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition is also regulated by AKNA in other epithelial cells, demonstrating its general importance for the control of cell delamination.
Assuntos
Centrossomo/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Ventrículos Laterais/citologia , Ventrículos Laterais/embriologia , Microtúbulos/metabolismo , Neurogênese , Proteínas Nucleares/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismo , Animais , Movimento Celular , Células Cultivadas , Células Epiteliais/metabolismo , Transição Epitelial-Mesenquimal , Humanos , Junções Intercelulares/metabolismo , Interfase , Ventrículos Laterais/anatomia & histologia , Glândulas Mamárias Animais/citologia , Camundongos , Tamanho do Órgão , Organoides/citologiaRESUMO
Cell metabolism is a key regulator of human neocortex development and evolution. Several lines of evidence indicate that alterations in neural stem/progenitor cell (NPC) metabolism lead to abnormal brain development, particularly brain size-associated neurodevelopmental disorders, such as microcephaly. Abnormal NPC metabolism causes impaired cell proliferation and thus insufficient expansion of NPCs for neurogenesis. Therefore, the production of neurons, which is a major determinant of brain size, is decreased and the size of the brain, especially the size of the neocortex, is significantly reduced. This review discusses recent progress understanding NPC metabolism, focusing in particular on glucose metabolism, fatty acid metabolism and amino acid metabolism (e.g., glutaminolysis and serine metabolism). We provide an overview of the contributions of these metabolic pathways to brain development and evolution, as well as to the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various experimental models to study cell metabolism in the developing brain.
Assuntos
Encéfalo , Células-Tronco Neurais , Transtornos do Neurodesenvolvimento , Humanos , Transtornos do Neurodesenvolvimento/metabolismo , Transtornos do Neurodesenvolvimento/patologia , Transtornos do Neurodesenvolvimento/fisiopatologia , Encéfalo/metabolismo , Encéfalo/patologia , Encéfalo/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Animais , Células-Tronco Neurais/metabolismo , Células-Tronco Neurais/patologia , Neurogênese/fisiologia , Tamanho do Órgão/fisiologiaRESUMO
The human-specific gene ARHGAP11B has been implicated in human neocortex expansion. However, the extent of ARHGAP11B's contribution to this expansion during hominid evolution is unknown. Here we address this issue by genetic manipulation of ARHGAP11B levels and function in chimpanzee and human cerebral organoids. ARHGAP11B expression in chimpanzee cerebral organoids doubles basal progenitor levels, the class of cortical progenitors with a key role in neocortex expansion. Conversely, interference with ARHGAP11B's function in human cerebral organoids decreases basal progenitors down to the chimpanzee level. Moreover, ARHGAP11A or ARHGAP11B rescue experiments in ARHGAP11A plus ARHGAP11B double-knockout human forebrain organoids indicate that lack of ARHGAP11B, but not of ARHGAP11A, decreases the abundance of basal radial glia-the basal progenitor type thought to be of particular relevance for neocortex expansion. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that ARHGAP11B is necessary and sufficient to ensure the elevated basal progenitor levels that characterize the fetal human neocortex, suggesting that this human-specific gene was a major contributor to neocortex expansion during human evolution.
Assuntos
Hominidae , Neocórtex , Células-Tronco Neurais , Animais , Humanos , Células-Tronco Neurais/metabolismo , Organoides/metabolismo , Hominidae/metabolismo , Pan troglodytes/genética , Pan troglodytes/metabolismo , Neocórtex/metabolismo , Neurogênese/genética , Proteínas Ativadoras de GTPase/genética , Proteínas Ativadoras de GTPase/metabolismoRESUMO
Proper temporal and spatial activation of stem cells relies on highly coordinated cell signaling. The primary cilium is the sensory organelle that is responsible for transmitting extracellular signals into a cell. Primary cilium size, architecture, and assembly-disassembly dynamics are under rigid cell cycle-dependent control. Using mouse incisor tooth epithelia as a model, we show that ciliary dynamics in stem cells require the proper functions of a cholesterol-binding membrane glycoprotein, Prominin-1 (Prom1/CD133), which controls sequential recruitment of ciliary membrane components, histone deacetylase, and transcription factors. Nuclear translocation of Prom1 and these molecules is particularly evident in transit amplifying cells, the immediate derivatives of stem cells. The absence of Prom1 impairs ciliary dynamics and abolishes the growth stimulation effects of sonic hedgehog (SHH) treatment, resulting in the disruption of stem cell quiescence maintenance and activation. We propose that Prom1 is a key regulator ensuring appropriate response of stem cells to extracellular signals, with important implications for development, regeneration, and diseases.
Assuntos
Antígeno AC133/metabolismo , Cílios/metabolismo , Incisivo/citologia , Antígeno AC133/genética , Animais , Núcleo Celular/metabolismo , Células Cultivadas , Humanos , Incisivo/metabolismo , Camundongos , Modelos Biológicos , Mutagênese Sítio-Dirigida , Transporte Proteico , Transdução de Sinais , Células-Tronco/citologia , Células-Tronco/metabolismoRESUMO
Prominin-1 is a cell surface biomarker that allows the identification of stem and cancer stem cells from different organs. It is also expressed in several differentiated epithelial and non-epithelial cells. Irrespective of the cell type, prominin-1 is associated with plasma membrane protrusions. Here, we investigate its impact on the architecture of membrane protrusions using microvilli of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells as the main model. Our high-resolution analysis revealed that upon the overexpression of prominin-1 the number of microvilli and clusters of them increased. Microvilli with branched and/or knob-like morphologies were observed and stimulated by mutations in the ganglioside-binding site of prominin-1. The altered phenotypes were caused by the interaction of prominin-1 with phosphoinositide 3-kinase and Arp2/3 complex. Mutation of tyrosine 828 of prominin-1 impaired its phosphorylation and thereby inhibited the aforementioned interactions abolishing altered microvilli. This suggests that the interplay of prominin-1-ganglioside membrane complexes, phosphoinositide 3-kinase and cytoskeleton components regulates microvillar architecture. Lastly, the expression of prominin-1 and its mutants modified the structure of filopodia emerging from fibroblast-like cells and silencing human prominin-1 in primary hematopoietic stem cells resulted in the loss of uropod-associated microvilli. Altogether, these findings strengthen the role of prominin-1 as an organizer of cellular protrusions.
Assuntos
Antígeno AC133/metabolismo , Microvilosidades/metabolismo , Antígeno AC133/química , Antígeno AC133/genética , Animais , Sítios de Ligação , Células CHO , Células Cultivadas , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , Cães , Gangliosídeos/metabolismo , Células-Tronco Hematopoéticas/metabolismo , Humanos , Células Madin Darby de Rim Canino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Microvilosidades/ultraestrutura , Mutação , Fosfatidilinositol 3-Quinases/metabolismo , Ligação ProteicaRESUMO
Open spina bifida (OSB) is one of the most prevalent congenital malformations of the CNS that often leads to severe disabilities. Previous studies reported the volume and thickness of the neocortex to be altered in children and adolescents diagnosed with OSB. Until now, the onset and the underlying cause of the atypical neocortex organization in OSB patients remain largely unknown. To examine the effects of OSB on fetal neocortex development, we analyzed human fetuses of both sexes diagnosed with OSB between 11 and 15 weeks of gestation by immunofluorescence for established neuronal and neural progenitor marker proteins and compared the results with healthy controls of the same, or very similar, gestational age. Our data indicate that neocortex development in OSB fetuses is altered as early as 11 weeks of gestation. We observed a marked reduction in the radial thickness of the OSB neocortex, which appears to be attributable to a massive decrease in the number of deep- and upper-layer neurons per field, and found a marked reduction in the number of basal progenitors (BPs) per field in the OSB neocortex, consistent with an impairment of cortical neurogenesis underlying the neuronal decrease in OSB fetuses. Moreover, our data suggest that the decrease in BP number in the OSB neocortex may be associated with BPs spending a lesser proportion of their cell cycle in M-phase. Together, our findings expand our understanding of the pathophysiology of OSB and support the need for an early fetal therapy (i.e., in the first trimester of pregnancy).SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Open spina bifida (OSB) is one of the most prevalent congenital malformations of the CNS. This study provides novel data on neocortex development of human OSB fetuses. Our data indicate that neocortex development in OSB fetuses is altered as early as 11 weeks of gestation. We observed a marked reduction in the radial thickness of the OSB neocortex, which appears to be attributable a decrease in the number of deep- and upper-layer neurons per field, and found a marked reduction in the number of basal progenitors per field, indicating that impaired neurogenesis underlies the neuronal decrease in OSB fetuses. Our findings support the need for an early fetal therapy and expand our understanding of the pathophysiology of OSB.
Assuntos
Córtex Cerebral/embriologia , Desenvolvimento Embrionário/fisiologia , Células-Tronco Neurais , Neurogênese/fisiologia , Neurônios/patologia , Espinha Bífida Cística/embriologia , Córtex Cerebral/patologia , Feminino , Idade Gestacional , Humanos , Gravidez , Primeiro Trimestre da GravidezRESUMO
Prominins (proms) are transmembrane glycoproteins conserved throughout the animal kingdom. They are associated with plasma membrane protrusions, such as primary cilia, as well as extracellular vesicles derived thereof. Primary cilia host numerous signaling pathways affected in diseases known as ciliopathies. Human PROM1 (CD133) is detected in both somatic and cancer stem cells and is also expressed in terminally differentiated epithelial and photoreceptor cells. Genetic mutations in the PROM1 gene result in retinal degeneration by impairing the proper formation of the outer segment of photoreceptors, a modified cilium. Here, we investigated the impact of proms on two distinct examples of ciliogenesis. First, we demonstrate that the overexpression of a dominant-negative mutant variant of human PROM1 (i.e. mutation Y819F/Y828F) significantly decreases ciliary length in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. These results contrast strongly to the previously observed enhancing effect of WT PROM1 on ciliary length. Mechanistically, the mutation impeded the interaction of PROM1 with ADP-ribosylation factor-like protein 13B, a key regulator of ciliary length. Second, we observed that in vivo knockdown of prom3 in zebrafish alters the number and length of monocilia in the Kupffer's vesicle, resulting in molecular and anatomical defects in the left-right asymmetry. These distinct loss-of-function approaches in two biological systems reveal that prom proteins are critical for the integrity and function of cilia. Our data provide new insights into ciliogenesis and might be of particular interest for investigations of the etiologies of ciliopathies.
Assuntos
Antígeno AC133/metabolismo , Cílios/metabolismo , Peixe-Zebra , Antígeno AC133/química , Antígeno AC133/genética , Animais , Cães , Regulação para Baixo , Regulação da Expressão Gênica no Desenvolvimento , Espaço Intracelular/metabolismo , Células de Kupffer/citologia , Células Madin Darby de Rim Canino , Mutação , Transporte Proteico , TirosinaRESUMO
The generation of neocortical neurons from neural progenitor cells (NPCs) is primarily controlled by transcription factors binding to DNA in the context of chromatin. To understand the complex layer of regulation that orchestrates different NPC types from the same DNA sequence, epigenome maps with cell type resolution are required. Here, we present genomewide histone methylation maps for distinct neural cell populations in the developing mouse neocortex. Using different chromatin features, we identify potential novel regulators of cortical NPCs. Moreover, we identify extensive H3K27me3 changes between NPC subtypes coinciding with major developmental and cell biological transitions. Interestingly, we detect dynamic H3K27me3 changes on promoters of several crucial transcription factors, including the basal progenitor regulator Eomes We use catalytically inactive Cas9 fused with the histone methyltransferase Ezh2 to edit H3K27me3 at the Eomes locus in vivo, which results in reduced Tbr2 expression and lower basal progenitor abundance, underscoring the relevance of dynamic H3K27me3 changes during neocortex development. Taken together, we provide a rich resource of neocortical histone methylation data and outline an approach to investigate its contribution to the regulation of selected genes during neocortical development.
Assuntos
Regulação da Expressão Gênica no Desenvolvimento , Histonas/genética , Neocórtex/metabolismo , Células-Tronco Neurais/fisiologia , Animais , Epigênese Genética , Perfilação da Expressão Gênica , Genoma , Metilação , Camundongos Transgênicos , Neurogênese/fisiologiaRESUMO
A specific subpopulation of neural progenitor cells, the basal radial glial cells (bRGCs) of the outer subventricular zone (OSVZ), are thought to have a key role in the evolutionary expansion of the mammalian neocortex. In the developing lissencephalic mouse neocortex, bRGCs exist at low abundance and show significant molecular differences from bRGCs in developing gyrencephalic species. Here, we demonstrate that the developing mouse medial neocortex (medNcx), in contrast to the canonically studied lateral neocortex (latNcx), exhibits an OSVZ and an abundance of bRGCs similar to that in developing gyrencephalic neocortex. Unlike bRGCs in developing mouse latNcx, the bRGCs in medNcx exhibit human bRGC-like gene expression, including expression of Hopx, a human bRGC marker. Disruption of Hopx expression in mouse embryonic medNcx and forced Hopx expression in mouse embryonic latNcx demonstrate that Hopx is required and sufficient, respectively, for bRGC abundance as found in the developing gyrencephalic neocortex. Taken together, our data identify a novel bRGC subpopulation in developing mouse medNcx that is highly related to bRGCs of developing gyrencephalic neocortex.
Assuntos
Células Ependimogliais/metabolismo , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/metabolismo , Neocórtex/citologia , Neocórtex/embriologia , Animais , Sistemas CRISPR-Cas/genética , Proliferação de Células , Embrião de Mamíferos/metabolismo , Perfilação da Expressão Gênica , Regulação da Expressão Gênica no Desenvolvimento , Humanos , Ventrículos Laterais/embriologia , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Neocórtex/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição PAX6/metabolismo , Células-Tronco/citologiaRESUMO
The mammalian neocortex is the seat of higher cognitive functions, such as thinking and language in human. A hallmark of the neocortex are the cortical neurons, which are generated from divisions of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) during development, and which constitute a key feature of the well-organized layered structure of the neocortex. Proper formation of neocortex structure requires an orchestrated cellular behavior of different cortical NPCs during development, especially during the process of cortical neurogenesis. Here, we review the great diversity of NPCs and their contribution to the development of the neocortex. First, we review the categorization of NPCs into different classes and types based on their cell biological features, and discuss recent advances in characterizing marker expression and cell polarity features in the different types of NPCs. Second, we review the different modes of cell divisions that NPCs undergo and discuss the importance of the balance between proliferation and differentiation of NPCs in neocortical development. Third, we review the different proliferative capacities among different NPC types and among the same type of NPC in different mammalian species. Dissecting the differences between NPC types and differences among mammalian species is beneficial to further understand the development and the evolutionary expansion of the neocortex and may open up new therapeutic avenues for neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders.
Assuntos
Neocórtex/citologia , Neocórtex/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Células-Tronco Neurais/citologia , Neurogênese/fisiologia , Neurônios/citologia , Animais , Evolução Biológica , Divisão Celular/fisiologia , Polaridade Celular/fisiologia , Humanos , Células-Tronco Neurais/classificação , Células-Tronco Neurais/metabolismo , Neurônios/metabolismo , Transdução de Sinais/fisiologiaRESUMO
Microinjection into single cells in brain tissue is a powerful technique to study and manipulate neural stem cells. However, such microinjection requires expertise and is a low-throughput process. We developed the "Autoinjector", a robot that utilizes images from a microscope to guide a microinjection needle into tissue to deliver femtoliter volumes of liquids into single cells. The Autoinjector enables microinjection of hundreds of cells within a single organotypic slice, resulting in an overall yield that is an order of magnitude greater than manual microinjection. The Autoinjector successfully targets both apical progenitors (APs) and newborn neurons in the embryonic mouse and human fetal telencephalon. We used the Autoinjector to systematically study gap-junctional communication between neural progenitors in the embryonic mouse telencephalon and found that apical contact is a characteristic feature of the cells that are part of a gap junction-coupled cluster. The throughput and versatility of the Autoinjector will render microinjection an accessible high-performance single-cell manipulation technique and will provide a powerful new platform for performing single-cell analyses in tissue for bioengineering and biophysics applications.
Assuntos
Encéfalo/citologia , Microinjeções , Robótica , Análise de Célula Única , Animais , Automação , Comunicação Celular , Linhagem da Célula , Humanos , Processamento de Imagem Assistida por Computador , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Células-Tronco Neurais/citologia , Neurogênese , RNA Mensageiro/genética , RNA Mensageiro/metabolismo , Telencéfalo/citologia , Telencéfalo/embriologiaRESUMO
Blood vessels are part of the stem cell niche in the developing cerebral cortex, but their in vivo role in controlling the expansion and differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) in development has not been studied. Here, we report that relief of hypoxia in the developing cerebral cortex by ingrowth of blood vessels temporo-spatially coincided with NSC differentiation. Selective perturbation of brain angiogenesis in vessel-specific Gpr124 null embryos, which prevented the relief from hypoxia, increased NSC expansion at the expense of differentiation. Conversely, exposure to increased oxygen levels rescued NSC differentiation in Gpr124 null embryos and increased it further in WT embryos, suggesting that niche blood vessels regulate NSC differentiation at least in part by providing oxygen. Consistent herewith, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α levels controlled the switch of NSC expansion to differentiation. Finally, we provide evidence that high glycolytic activity of NSCs is required to prevent their precocious differentiation in vivo Thus, blood vessel function is required for efficient NSC differentiation in the developing cerebral cortex by providing oxygen and possibly regulating NSC metabolism.
Assuntos
Diferenciação Celular , Proliferação de Células , Córtex Cerebral/embriologia , Glicólise , Hipóxia , Neovascularização Fisiológica , Células-Tronco Neurais/fisiologia , Animais , Subunidade alfa do Fator 1 Induzível por Hipóxia/análise , Camundongos , Oxigênio/metabolismoRESUMO
The generation of multiciliated cells (MCCs) is required for the proper function of many tissues, including the respiratory tract, brain, and germline. Defects in MCC development have been demonstrated to cause a subclass of mucociliary clearance disorders termed reduced generation of multiple motile cilia (RGMC). To date, only two genes, Multicilin (MCIDAS) and cyclin O (CCNO) have been identified in this disorder in humans. Here, we describe mice lacking GEMC1 (GMNC), a protein with a similar domain organization as Multicilin that has been implicated in DNA replication control. We have found that GEMC1-deficient mice are growth impaired, develop hydrocephaly with a high penetrance, and are infertile, due to defects in the formation of MCCs in the brain, respiratory tract, and germline. Our data demonstrate that GEMC1 is a critical regulator of MCC differentiation and a candidate gene for human RGMC or related disorders.