Green Tea Polyphenols Inhibit Colorectal Tumorigenesis in Azoxymethane-Treated F344 Rats.

In studying the cancer-preventive activities of green tea polyphenols, we previously demonstrated that dietary administration of polyphenon E (PPE) inhibited the formation of aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in the colon of azoxymethane (AOM)-treated F344 rats. Herein, we reported cancer-preventive activity of PPE using colorectal cancer as an end point. F344 rats were given two weekly injections of AOM, and then maintained on a 20% high-fat diet with or without 0.24% PPE for 34 wk. In the control group, 83% of rats developed colorectal tumors. Dietary PPE treatment significantly increased the plasma and colonic levels of tea polyphenols, and decreased tumor multiplicity and tumor size. Histological analysis indicated that PPE significantly decreased the incidence of adenocarcinoma, and the multiplicity of adenocarcinoma as well as the multiplicity of adenoma. PPE treatment significantly decreased plasma levels of proinflammatory eicosanoids, prostaglandin E2, and leukotriene B4. It also decreased ß-catenin nuclear expression, induced apoptosis, and increased expression levels of RXRα, ß, and γ in adenocarcinomas. In conclusion, our results convincingly demonstrated the inhibitory effects of orally administered PPE on colon carcinogenesis in AOM-treated rats and suggested possible biomarkers for the biological effects of green tea polyphenols.

Antioxidant activities of thermally treated Sesamum indicum L. leaf extracts and their inhibitory effects against growth and metastatic properties of human colon cancer cells.

The study aimed to investigate antioxidant activities of two different thermally treated sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) leaf ethanol extract, steamed sesame leaf extract (SSLE) and roasted sesame leaf extract (RSLE), and their inhibitory effects on uncontrolled growth and increased metastatic properties in human colon cancer cell lines. Both SSLE and RSLE contained pedaliin as the major polyphenol and its aglycon, pedalitin, as a minor component and exhibited radical scavenging activities and ferric reducing antioxidant power. SSLE and RSLE decreased growth of HT29 and HCT116 colon cancer cells, which was attributed to the induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at either G2/M (by SSLE in HCT116) or S phase (by RSLE in HCT116). Furthermore, SSLE and RSLE inhibited migration and adhesion in both cell lines. These results indicate that thermally treated sesame leaves retained pedaliin content and exhibited antioxidant activities and inhibitory activities against the growth and metastatic properties of colon cancer cells.

Inhibition of IGF-1 signaling by genistein: modulation of E-cadherin expression and downregulation of ß-catenin signaling in hormone refractory PC-3 prostate cancer cells.

Elevated levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) are associated with an increased risk of several different cancers, including prostate cancer. Inhibition of IGF-1 and the downstream signaling pathways mediated by the activation of the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) may be involved in inhibiting prostate carcinogenesis. We investigated whether genistein downregulated the IGF-1/IGF-1R signaling pathway and inhibited cell growth in hormone refractory PC-3 prostate cancer cells. Genistein treatment caused a significant inhibition of IGF-1-stimulated cell growth. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that genistein significantly decreased the number of IGF-1-stimulated cells in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. In IGF-1-treated cells, genistein effectively inhibited the phosphorylation of IGF-1R and the phosphorylation of its downstream targets, such as Src, Akt, and glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSk-3ß). IGF-1 treatment decreased the levels of E-cadherin but increased the levels of ß-catenin and cyclin D1. However, genistein treatment greatly attenuated IGF-1-induced ß-catenin signaling that correlated with increasing the levels of E-cadherin and decreasing cyclin D1 levels in PC-3 cells. In addition, genistein inhibited T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor (TCF/LEF)-dependent transcriptional activity. These results showed that genistein effectively inhibited cell growth in IGF-1-stimulated PC-3 cells, possibly by inhibiting downstream of IGF-1R activation.

Deleterious effects of high concentrations of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate and atorvastatin in mice with colon inflammation.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), atorvastatin (ATST), and their combination have been previously shown to inhibit colon carcinogenesis in animal models. We further investigated their inhibitory activities in azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-treated Balb/cJ mice and CD-1 mice in 2 slightly different models. The mice were maintained on the AIN93M diet, or a similar diet containing 0.03%, 0.1%, or 0.3% EGCG; 60-ppm ATST; or a combination of 0.1% EGCG and 60-ppm ATST. Unexpectedly, no significant inhibitory activity was observed, and some of the treatment groups resulted in higher tumor multiplicity. To study the effects of EGCG on colon inflammation, CD-1 or C57BL/6 mice were treated with 1.5% DSS for 7 days and sacrificed 3 days later. DSS induced rectal bleeding and colon shortening; treatment with 0.5% EGCG exacerbated the bleeding and decreased mouse body weight. Dietary 0.5% EGCG also increased serum levels of leukotriene B4 and prostaglandin E2. These results suggest that, in mice bearing colon inflammation, high concentrations of EGCG and ATST enhance colon bleeding and may promote colon carcinogenesis.

In Vitro Antioxidant and Anti-Colon Cancer Activities of Sesamum indicum L. Leaf Extract and Its Major Component, Pedaliin.

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) leaves (SLs) are used as vegetables and traditional medicines in Asian and African countries. We investigated in vitro antioxidant and anti-colon cancer efficacy of ethanol extract of SL (SLE) and its major bioactive component. SLE contained appreciable amount of major classes of antioxidant phytochemicals, such as total polyphenols, total flavonoids, and carotenoids, and correspondingly exhibited antioxidant activities, such as radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). A cell viability assay showed that SLE time- and dose-dependently attenuated the growth of human colon cancer cells, HT29 and HCT116. Flow cytometry analysis showed that SLE increased sub-G1 (in HT29 and HCT116) and G2/M (in HCT116) cell populations, suggesting that the growth inhibition by SLE was due to induction of apoptosis and G2/M cell cycle arrest. Trans-well and wound-healing assays showed that SLE alleviated invasion and migration of HT29 and HCT116 cells in non-cytotoxic conditions. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed that pedaliin (6-hydroxylueolin 7-methyl ether 6-glucoside; pedalitin-6-O-glucoside) was a major constituent of SLE. Moreover, FRAP, growth-inhibitory, anti-invasive, and anti-migratory activities of pedaliin were found. These results demonstrated that SLE possesses in vitro antioxidant and anti-colon cancer activities and that pedaliin is a major component contributing to such activities.

Cancer-preventive activities of tocopherols and tocotrienols.

The cancer-preventive activity of vitamin E has been studied. Whereas some epidemiological studies have suggested a protective effect of vitamin E against cancer formation, many large-scale intervention studies with alpha-tocopherol (usually large doses) have not demonstrated a cancer-preventive effect. Studies on alpha-tocopherol in animal models also have not demonstrated robust cancer prevention effects. One possible explanation for the lack of demonstrable cancer-preventive effects is that high doses of alpha-tocopherol decrease the blood and tissue levels of delta-tocopherols. It has been suggested that gamma-tocopherol, due to its strong anti-inflammatory and other activities, may be the more effective form of vitamin E in cancer prevention. Our recent results have demonstrated that a gamma-tocopherol-rich mixture of tocopherols inhibits colon, prostate, mammary and lung tumorigenesis in animal models, suggesting that this mixture may have a high potential for applications in the prevention of human cancer. In this review, we discuss biochemical properties of tocopherols, results of possible cancer-preventive effects in humans and animal models and possible mechanisms involved in the inhibition of carcinogenesis. Based on this information, we propose that a gamma-tocopherol-rich mixture of tocopherols is a very promising cancer-preventive agent and warrants extensive future research.

Perilla frutescens Britton var. frutescens leaves attenuate dextran sulfate sodium-induced acute colitis in mice and lipopolysaccharide-stimulated angiogenic processes in human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

The aim of the current study was to investigate whether the leaves of Perilla frutescens Britton var. frutescens (PL), a frequently consumed vegetable in Korea, attenuate dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced acute colitis in mice and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated angiogenic processes in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). In DSS-treated mice, dietary supplementation with PL mitigated DAI and colon shortening. The dietary PL also reduced colonic levels of inflammatory and angiogenic mediators, such as interleukin-1ß, interleukin-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein-2, leukotriene B4, inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, basic fibroblast growth factor, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). Treatment of HUVEC with ethanol extract of PL attenuated LPS-stimulated increases in ICAM-1 levels, monocyte adhesion, invasion, and tube formation. This study suggests that dietary PL effectively inhibited DSS-induced acute colitis in mice, and its anti-angiogenic activities may partially contribute to the inhibition.

Antirrhinum majus L. flower extract inhibits cell growth and metastatic properties in human colon and lung cancer cell lines.

Snapdragon ( Antirrhinum majus L.) flowers are one of the most frequently used edible flowers in different preparations of foods and drinks. In this study, we examined inhibitory effects of snapdragon flower extract (SFE) against distinctive properties of cancer cells, stimulated growth, and activated metastasis, using H1299 lung cancer and HCT116 colon cancer cell lines. SFE treatment at 100-1,000 µg/ml for 24-72 hr resulted in a time- and dose-dependent growth inhibition in H1299 and HCT116 cells. Cell cycle analysis and Annexin V staining assay further revealed that SFE caused cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and induction of apoptosis, indicating the growth inhibition by SFE is attributed to its G2/M cell cycle-arresting and apoptosis-inducing activities. SFE dose-dependently enhanced generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential in H1299 cells but had no effect on intracellular ROS levels in HCT116 cells, suggesting that the type of apoptosis induced by SFE in H1299 cells is different to that in HCT116 cells. Furthermore, SFE alleviated invasion, levels of matrix metalloproteinases, migration, and adhesion in H1299 and HCT116 cells. These results indicate that SFE not only inhibits cell growth by cell cycle arrest at G2/M and apoptosis induction but also alleviates metastatic properties such as invasion, migration, and adhesion in lung and colon cancer cells.

Effect of genistein on the bioavailability and intestinal cancer chemopreventive activity of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate.

The green tea (Camellia sinensis) catechin, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), has shown cancer-preventive activity in animal models. Previously, we have reported the bioavailability of EGCG in rats and mice. Here, we report that cotreatment of HT-29 human colon cancer cells with genistein (from soy) increased cytosolic EGCG by 2- to 5-fold compared with treatment with EGCG only. Inclusion of genistein, at non-cytotoxic concentrations, increased the growth inhibitory effects of EGCG against HT-29 cells (up to 2-fold at 20 microM genistein). Intragastric coadministration of EGCG (75 mg/kg) and genistein (200 mg/kg) to CF-1 mice resulted in an increase in plasma half-life (t(1/2) 148.7 +/- 16.4 versus 111.5 +/- 23.4 min) and exposure (AUC(0-->infinity) 183.9 +/- 20.2 versus 125.8 +/- 26.4 microg/ml x min) of EGCG. Cotreatment with genistein also increased the maximal concentration (C(max)), 6 h exposure (AUC(0-->360 min)), and t(1/2) of EGCG in the small intestine by 2.0-, 4.7- and 1.4-fold, respectively, compared with mice treated with EGCG only. Contrary to our expectations, the combination of 0.01% EGCG in the drinking fluid and 0.2% genistein in the diet enhanced intestinal tumorigenesis in male adenomatous polyposis coli (APC)(min/+) mice. This combination increased the multiplicity of tumors in the medial and distal small intestine: the largest increase was in tumors >2 mm in diameter (4.3-fold compared with controls). This study demonstrates that although genistein can enhance EGCG bioavailability and in vitro growth inhibitory activity, this combination enhances tumorigenesis in the APC(min/+) mouse. These results further show the need for careful cancer prevention studies in animal models and for caution when interpreting data from in vitro studies.

Green tea polyphenols inhibit colorectal aberrant crypt foci (ACF) formation and prevent oncogenic changes in dysplastic ACF in azoxymethane-treated F344 rats.

Green tea and its constituents have shown cancer-preventive activities in many animal models. In order to prepare for a human trial on the inhibition of colon carcinogenesis, we conducted a study with green tea polyphenols as the preventive agent in an azoxymethane (AOM)-induced rat colon cancer model using aberrant crypt foci (ACF) as an end point. F344 rats were given two weekly injections of AOM (15 mg/kg), and then fed a 20% high-fat diet with or without 0.12 or 0.24% Polyphenon E (PPE, a standardized green tea preparation consisting 65% of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate and 22% of other catechins) for 8 weeks. Colorectal ACF were analyzed under a microscope after methylene blue staining. Dietary PPE administration was found to significantly and dose dependently decrease the total number of ACF per rat and the total number of aberrant crypt per rat. Moreover, treatment with 0.24% PPE also significantly decreased the percentage of large ACF (four or more crypts) and the percentage of ACF with high-grade dysplasia in total ACF. The high-grade dysplastic ACF from 0.24% PPE-treated group had increased apoptosis and decreased nuclear expression levels of beta-catenin and cyclin D1. Retinoid X receptor (RXR)alpha expression was reduced in high-grade dysplastic ACF, adenoma and adenocarcinoma during AOM-induced colon carcinogenesis, and the PPE treatment partially prevented the loss of RXRalpha expression in high-grade dysplastic ACF. Taken together, our results strongly suggest the colon cancer-preventive activity of PPE and identified possible molecular markers for future colon cancer prevention studies.

The major green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate, inhibits obesity, metabolic syndrome, and fatty liver disease in high-fat-fed mice.

In this study, we investigated the effects of the major green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), on high-fat-induced obesity, symptoms of the metabolic syndrome, and fatty liver in mice. In mice fed a high-fat diet (60% energy as fat), supplementation with dietary EGCG treatment (3.2 g/kg diet) for 16 wk reduced body weight (BW) gain, percent body fat, and visceral fat weight (P < 0.05) compared with mice without EGCG treatment. The BW decrease was associated with increased fecal lipids in the high-fat-fed groups (r(2) = 0.521; P < 0.05). EGCG treatment attenuated insulin resistance, plasma cholesterol, and monocyte chemoattractant protein concentrations in high-fat-fed mice (P < 0.05). EGCG treatment also decreased liver weight, liver triglycerides, and plasma alanine aminotransferase concentrations in high-fat-fed mice (P < 0.05). Histological analyses of liver samples revealed decreased lipid accumulation in hepatocytes in mice treated with EGCG compared with high-fat diet-fed mice without EGCG treatment. In another experiment, 3-mo-old high-fat-induced obese mice receiving short-term EGCG treatment (3.2 g/kg diet, 4 wk) had decreased mesenteric fat weight and blood glucose compared with high-fat-fed control mice (P < 0.05). Our results indicate that long-term EGCG treatment attenuated the development of obesity, symptoms associated with the metabolic syndrome, and fatty liver. Short-term EGCG treatment appeared to reverse preexisting high-fat-induced metabolic pathologies in obese mice. These effects may be mediated by decreased lipid absorption, decreased inflammation, and other mechanisms.

Voluntary exercise inhibits intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc(Min/+) mice and azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium-treated mice.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies suggest that physical activity reduces the risk of colon cancer in humans. Results from animal studies, however, are inconclusive. The present study investigated the effects of voluntary exercise on intestinal tumor formation in two different animal models, Apc(Min/+) mice and azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-treated mice. METHODS: In Experiments 1 and 2, five-week old female Apc(Min/+) mice were either housed in regular cages or cages equipped with a running wheel for 6 weeks (for mice maintained on the AIN93G diet; Experiment 1) or 9 weeks (for mice on a high-fat diet; Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, male CF-1 mice at 6 weeks of age were given a dose of AOM (10 mg/kg body weight, i.p.) and, 12 days later, 1.5% DSS in drinking fluid for 1 week. The mice were then maintained on a high-fat diet and housed in regular cages or cages equipped with a running wheel for 16 weeks. RESULTS: In the Apc(Min/+) mice maintained on either the AIN93G or the high-fat diet, voluntary exercise decreased the number of small intestinal tumors. In the AOM/DSS-treated mice maintained on a high-fat diet, voluntary exercise also decreased the number of colon tumors. In Apc(Min/+) mice, voluntary exercise decreased the ratio of serum insulin like growth factor (IGF)-1 to IGF binding protein (BP)-3 levels. It also decreased prostaglandin E2 and nuclear beta-catenin levels, but increased E-cadherin levels in the tumors. CONCLUSION: These results indicate hat voluntary exercise inhibited intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc(Min/+) mice and AOM/DSS-treated mice, and the inhibitory effect is associated with decreased IGF-1/IGFBP-3 ratio, aberrant beta-catenin signaling, and arachidonic acid metabolism.

Effects of combination of calcium and aspirin on azoxymethane-induced aberrant crypt foci formation in the colons of mice and rats.

Human intervention studies have suggested an exciting synergistic action between calcium supplementation and aspirin intake in reducing the risk of colorectal cancer. The aim of this study was to determine whether such a synergy can be demonstrated on azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colon aberrant crypt foci (ACF) formation in mice and rats. Female CF-1 mice and male F344 rats were injected subcutaneously with AOM and then received diet treatments for 8 wk. The basal control diet contained high fat (20% mixed lipids by weight) and low calcium (1.4 mg/g diet) to mimic the average Western diet. The treatment diets contained enriched calcium (5.2 mg calcium/g diet), aspirin (0.2 mg aspirin/g diet), or calcium plus aspirin (5.2 mg calcium plus 0.2 mg aspirin/g diet). Treatment with calcium, aspirin, or their combination significantly decreased the number of total ACF and aberrant crypt per mouse (by 43-59%) or rat (by 23-38%), but statistically significant differences among the 3 groups were not observed. A hint of additivity between calcium and aspirin was observed in mice but not in rats. These results indicate that the combination of calcium and aspirin did not produce a synergistic effect on the ACF formation in AOM-treated mice and rats.

Effects of garcinol and its derivatives on intestinal cell growth: Inhibitory effects and autoxidation-dependent growth-stimulatory effects.

Garcinol, a polyisoprenylated benzophenone, from the Garcinia indica fruit rind, has been suggested to be an anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer agent. To explore the possible use of this redox-sensitive compound as a colon cancer preventive agent, we investigated the effects of garcinol and its oxidative derivatives, cambogin, garcim-1, and garcim-2, on the growth of HT-29 and HCT-116 colon cancer cells, as well as IEC-6 and INT-407 normal immortalized intestinal cells. Garcinol and its derivatives showed potent growth-inhibitory effects on all intestinal cells, showing IC50 of 3.2-21.4 microM after a 3-day treatment. Garcim-1 exhibited the strongest effect with IC50 of 3.2-5.9 microM. Garcinol was more effective in inhibiting growth of cancer cells than that of normal immortalized cells. Flow-cytometric analysis showed increased sub-G1 cells by treatment with garcinol and cambogin. Induction of apoptosis by garcinol and cambogin (2-10 microM) was also observed based on caspase-3 activation and enhanced annexin V staining. The inhibitory effect of garcinol on cell growth was much more pronounced in the absence of fetal bovine serum (FBS), decreasing IC50 to 1.5 from 11.8 microM in 72-h incubations and to 3 from 38 microM in 24-h incubations, possibly due to the binding of garcinol to FBS, which markedly reduced cellular levels of garcinol. Under these conditions, redox reactions seem not to be involved in the inhibition. In contrast to the inhibitory effect, low concentrations (<1 microM) of garcinol and cambogin stimulated the growth of both normal and cancer cells by 10-100%, and the activity seemed to be mediated by reactive oxygen species. In the presence of superoxide dismutase/catalase or N-acetyl cysteine, low concentrations of garcinol (<1 microM) decreased cell growth. Garcinol (0.5-1 microM) also increased the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2 and AKT and the level of survivin, and the effects were abolished in the presence of superoxide dismutase/catalase. Our results indicate that garcinol and its derivatives can inhibit intestinal cell growth, but low concentrations of garcinol can stimulate cell growth. It remains to be determined whether the currently observed stimulatory and inhibitory effects of garcinol on colon cell growth occur in vivo.

Inhibition of tumorigenesis in ApcMin/+ mice by a combination of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate and fish oil.

The effect of a combination of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) with fish oil on intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc (Min/+) mice fed a high-fat diet was investigated in the present study. The combined treatment of EGCG and fish oil for 9 weeks reduced the tumor number by 53% as compared to controls while neither agent alone had a significant effect. Apoptosis was significantly increased in all treatment groups. beta-Catenin nuclear positivity in adenomas from the combination group was lower than control mice, implicating the modulation of Wnt signaling by the combination. Fish oil and the combination significantly reduced prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2) levels in small intestinal tumors as compared to controls, suggesting modulation of aberrant arachidonic acid metabolism by fish oil. Akt phosphorylation in adenomas was significantly reduced in all treatment groups, which may have contributed to the observed increase in apoptosis. The results indicate that a combination of low doses of EGCG and fish oil can inhibit tumor multiplicity in Apc (Min/+) mice.

Inhibition of intestinal tumorigenesis in Apcmin/+ mice by (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate, the major catechin in green tea.

The present study was designed to investigate the effects of two main constituents of green tea, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and caffeine, on intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc(min/+) mice, a recognized mouse model for human intestinal cancer, and to elucidate possible mechanisms involved in the inhibitory action of the active constituent. We found that p.o. administration of EGCG at doses of 0.08% or 0.16% in drinking fluid significantly decreased small intestinal tumor formation by 37% or 47%, respectively, whereas caffeine at a dose of 0.044% in drinking fluid had no inhibitory activity against intestinal tumorigenesis. In another experiment, small intestinal tumorigenesis was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by p.o. administration of EGCG in a dose range of 0.02% to 0.32%. P.o. administration of EGCG resulted in increased levels of E-cadherin and decreased levels of nuclear beta-catenin, c-Myc, phospho-Akt, and phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) in small intestinal tumors. Treatment of HT29 human colon cancer cells with EGCG (12.5 or 20 micromol/L at different times) also increased protein levels of E-cadherin by 27% to 58%, induced the translocation of beta-catenin from nucleus to cytoplasm and plasma membrane, and decreased c-Myc and cyclin D1 (20 micromol/L EGCG for 24 hours). These results indicate that EGCG effectively inhibited intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc(min/+) mice, possibly through the attenuation of the carcinogenic events, which include aberrant nuclear beta-catenin and activated Akt and ERK signaling.

Glycine max Merr. leaf extract possesses anti-oxidant properties, decreases inflammatory mediator production in murine macrophages, and inhibits growth, migration, and adhesion in human cancer cells.

The present study aimed to investigate the in vitro anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties of the ethanol extract of soybean (Glycine max Merr.) leaves (SLE). The total polyphenol and flavonoid levels were 142.0±14.0mg gallic acid equivalent/g and 104.9±2.0 mg quercetin equivalent/g, respectively. The radical scavenging activity and ferric-reducing anti-oxidant power of SLE at the concentrations of 125-500 µg/mL were 5-61%. In lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages, treatment with SLE at concentrations of 62.5-500 µg/mL dose-dependently decreased the production of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2. In both HCT116 human colon cancer cells and H1299 human lung cancer cells, treatment with SLE inhibited the growth and anchorage-independent colony formation. SLE was also effective in inhibiting the migration of H1299 cells and the adhesion of both HCT116 and H1299 cells. These results suggest that SLE exerts anti-oxidant, antiinflammatory, and anti-cancer activities in vitro. It needs to be determined whether similar effects are reproduced in vivo.

Possible mechanisms of the cancer-preventive activities of green tea.

The cancer-preventive activities of tea and some tea constituents, such as caffeine and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), have been demonstrated in animal models. The mechanisms of action of the tea constituents have been extensively investigated, but the mechanisms for the cancer-preventive activity of tea are not clearly understood. This chapter discusses some of the reported studies on the green tea polyphenol, EGCG, and the major issues in the interpretation of these data. Among the different activities of EGCG observed in cell culture systems, we need to select the physiologically relevant ones based on the biological importance of the target as well as the effective concentration and whether the reaction can take place in vivo because of the limited bioavailability of EGCG. We also need to distinguish between primary and subsequent events. Possible artifacts should be recognized. The cancer-preventive mechanisms need to be validated in animal models or human samples.

Wheat bran oil and its fractions inhibit human colon cancer cell growth and intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc(min/+) mice.

This study was designed to investigate the cancer preventive activities of wheat bran (WB) oil. We studied the colon cancer preventive effects of WB oil and its subfractions in the Apc(min/+) mouse model, a recognized mouse model for human colorectal cancer, and used human colon cancer cell lines (HCT-116 and HT-29) to identify possible active fractions in WB oil. Our results showed that the oil fraction of WB was more active than the water fraction against the growth of human colon cancer cell lines and that 2% WB oil significantly inhibited the overall tumorigenesis by 35.7% (p < 0.0001) in the Apc(min/+) mouse model. The WB oil was further fractioned into nonpolar lipids and phytochemicals and the phytochemical fraction was fractionated into phytosterols and phytosterol ferulates, 5-alk(en)ylresorcinols, and unidentified constituents by normal phase silica gel column chromatography. Results on cell culture showed that the phytochemical fraction had a higher inhibitory effect on HCT-116 human colon cancer cells than that of WB oil, whereas the nonpolar lipid fraction had less growth inhibitory effectiveness. However, neither fractions showed a stronger inhibition than WB oil in the Apc(min/+) mouse model. The current results demonstrate, for the first time, the intestinal cancer preventive activity of WB oil. The active ingredients, however, remain to be identified.

Anti-cancer activities of Brassica juncea leaves in vitro.

Mustard (Brassica juncea) leaves are commonly consumed in different Asian and African countries. Cancer is a major burden of disease worldwide, and the colorectal and lung cancers are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among cancers. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effects of ethanol extract of mustard leaf (MLE) on the growth, angiogenic, and metastatic potentials of HCT116 colorectal carcinoma and H1299 non-small cell lung carcinoma cells in vitro. Treatment of HCT116 and H1299 cells with MLE inhibited cell growth in a dose-dependent manner (in the range of 175-700 µg/ml, by 39-86 %) and anchorage-independent colonization (at 700 µg/ml, by 56-86 %). Induction of apoptosis by MLE was evidenced by heterogeneous and condensed nucleus morphology, increased 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride staining intensity, and elevated sub-G1 cell population. In both HCT116 and H1299 cells, treatment with MLE markedly suppressed the secretion of key pro-angiogenic factors, such as vascular endothelial cell growth factor (by >92 %) and basic fibroblast growth factor (by 73-94 %). MLE was also effective in inhibiting critical events during metastasis, such as invasion (by 18-33 % in HCT116 and H1299), migration (45-82 % in H1299), and adhesion (by 17-45 % in HCT116 and H1299). These results indicate that MLE possesses in vitro anti-cancer activities against colon and lung cancers. It needs to be verified whether similar effects are reproduced in vivo.