TurboID reveals the proxiomes of Chlamydomonas proteins involved in thylakoid biogenesis and stress response.

In Chlamydomonas (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii), the VESICLE-INDUCING PROTEIN IN PLASTIDS 1 and 2 (VIPP1 and VIPP2) play roles in the sensing and coping with membrane stress and in thylakoid membrane biogenesis. To gain more insight into these processes, we aimed to identify proteins interacting with VIPP1/2 in the chloroplast and chose proximity labeling (PL) for this purpose. We used the transient interaction between the nucleotide exchange factor CHLOROPLAST GRPE HOMOLOG 1 (CGE1) and the stromal HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN 70B (HSP70B) as test system. While PL with APEX2 and BioID proved to be inefficient, TurboID resulted in substantial biotinylation in vivo. TurboID-mediated PL with VIPP1/2 as baits under ambient and H2O2 stress conditions confirmed known interactions of VIPP1 with VIPP2, HSP70B, and the CHLOROPLAST DNAJ HOMOLOG 2 (CDJ2). Proteins identified in the VIPP1/2 proxiomes can be grouped into proteins involved in the biogenesis of thylakoid membrane complexes and the regulation of photosynthetic electron transport, including PROTON GRADIENT REGULATION 5-LIKE 1 (PGRL1). A third group comprises 11 proteins of unknown function whose genes are upregulated under chloroplast stress conditions. We named them VIPP PROXIMITY LABELING (VPL). In reciprocal experiments, we confirmed VIPP1 in the proxiomes of VPL2 and PGRL1. Our results demonstrate the robustness of TurboID-mediated PL for studying protein interaction networks in the chloroplast of Chlamydomonas and pave the way for analyzing functions of VIPPs in thylakoid biogenesis and stress responses.

Visualizing Single-Cell Secretion Dynamics with Single-Protein Sensitivity.

Cellular secretion of proteins into the extracellular environment is an essential mediator of critical biological mechanisms, including cell-to-cell communication, immunological response, targeted delivery, and differentiation. Here, we report a novel methodology that allows for the real-time detection and imaging of single unlabeled proteins that are secreted from individual living cells. This is accomplished via interferometric detection of scattered light (iSCAT) and is demonstrated with Laz388 cells, an Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-transformed B cell line. We find that single Laz388 cells actively secrete IgG antibodies at a rate of the order of 100 molecules per second. Intriguingly, we also find that other proteins and particles spanning ca. 100 kDa-1 MDa are secreted from the Laz388 cells in tandem with IgG antibody release, likely arising from EBV-related viral proteins. The technique is general and, as we show, can also be applied to studying the lysate of a single cell. Our results establish label-free iSCAT imaging as a powerful tool for studying the real-time exchange between cells and their immediate environment with single-protein sensitivity.

The significance of glutathione and ascorbate in modulating the retrograde high light response in Arabidopsis thaliana leaves.

Retrograde signals from the chloroplast control expression of nuclear genes. A large fraction of these genes is affected rapidly upon light intensity shifts. This study was designed to address the interdependence of signaling pathways involved in the rapid high light response and redox and reactive oxygen species signaling by exploiting the glutathione and ascorbate deficient mutants pad2 and vtc1. In the first set of experiments the transcriptional response of the two transcription factors ERF6 and ERF105 that had previously been shown to rapidly respond to light was shown to be deregulated in the pad2 mutant but not in the vtc1 background. The transcriptional response after combining the low-to-high light transfer with methylviologen pretreatment further demonstrated the significance of glutathione in strongly modulating the retrograde response. Transcripts encoding small heat shock proteins (HSP17.4, HSP176a, HSP20-like1 and HSP20-like2) and the lipid transfer protein LTP3 were taken as markers responding to the combinatorial treatment in wild type, and most strongly in pad2 in high light or upon methylviologen treatment. A correlation with H2 O2 accumulation was not observed. It is concluded that glutathione-dependent processes participate in light-triggered rapid gene regulation independent on cellular H2 O2 .

Fast retrograde signaling in response to high light involves metabolite export, MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE6, and AP2/ERF transcription factors in Arabidopsis.

Regulation of the expression of nuclear genes encoding chloroplast proteins allows for metabolic adjustment in response to changing environmental conditions. This regulation is linked to retrograde signals that transmit information on the metabolic state of the chloroplast to the nucleus. Transcripts of several APETALA2/ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR transcription factors (AP2/ERF-TFs) were found to respond within 10 min after transfer of low-light-acclimated Arabidopsis thaliana plants to high light. Initiation of this transcriptional response was completed within 1 min after transfer to high light. The fast responses of four AP2/ERF genes, ERF6, RRTF1, ERF104, and ERF105, were entirely deregulated in triose phosphate/phosphate translocator (tpt) mutants. Similarly, activation of MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE6 (MPK6) was upregulated after 1 min in the wild type but not in the tpt mutant. Based on this, together with altered transcript regulation in mpk6 and erf6 mutants, a retrograde signal transmission model is proposed starting with metabolite export through the triose phosphate/phosphate translocator with subsequent MPK6 activation leading to initiation of AP2/ERF-TF gene expression and other downstream gene targets. The results show that operational retrograde signaling in response to high light involves a metabolite-linked pathway in addition to previously described redox and hormonal pathways.

NOTCH, ASCL1, p53 and RB alterations define an alternative pathway driving neuroendocrine and small cell lung carcinomas.

Small cell lung cancers (SCLCs) and extrapulmonary small cell cancers (SCCs) are very aggressive tumors arising de novo as primary small cell cancer with characteristic genetic lesions in RB1 and TP53. Based on murine models, neuroendocrine stem cells of the terminal bronchioli have been postulated as the cellular origin of primary SCLC. However, both in lung and many other organs, combined small cell/non-small cell tumors and secondary transitions from non-small cell carcinomas upon cancer therapy to neuroendocrine and small cell tumors occur. We define features of "small cell-ness" based on neuroendocrine markers, characteristic RB1 and TP53 mutations and small cell morphology. Furthermore, here we identify a pathway driving the pathogenesis of secondary SCLC involving inactivating NOTCH mutations, activation of the NOTCH target ASCL1 and canonical WNT-signaling in the context of mutual bi-allelic RB1 and TP53 lesions. Additionally, we explored ASCL1 dependent RB inactivation by phosphorylation, which is reversible by CDK5 inhibition. We experimentally verify the NOTCH-ASCL1-RB-p53 signaling axis in vitro and validate its activation by genetic alterations in vivo. We analyzed clinical tumor samples including SCLC, SCC and pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinomas and adenocarcinomas using amplicon-based Next Generation Sequencing, immunohistochemistry and fluorescence in situ hybridization. In conclusion, we identified a novel pathway underlying rare secondary SCLC which may drive small cell carcinomas in organs other than lung, as well.

Implementing amplicon-based next generation sequencing in the diagnosis of small cell lung carcinoma metastases.

Small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) is the most aggressive entity of lung cancer. Rapid cancer progression and early formation of systemic metastases drive the deadly outcome of SCLC. Recent advances in identifying oncogenes by cancer whole genome sequencing improved the understanding of SCLC carcinogenesis. However, tumor material is often limited in the clinic. Thus, it is a compulsive issue to improve SCLC diagnostics by combining established immunohistochemistry and next generation sequencing. We implemented amplicon-based next generation deep sequencing in our routine diagnostics pipeline to analyze RB1, TP53, EP300 and CREBBP, frequently mutated in SCLC. Thereby, our pipeline combined routine SCLC histology and identification of somatic mutations. We comprehensively analyzed fifty randomly collected SCLC metastases isolated from trachea and lymph nodes in comparison to specimens derived from primary SCLC. SCLC lymph node metastases showed enhanced proliferation and frequently a collapsed keratin cytoskeleton compared to SCLC metastases isolated from trachea. We identified characteristic synchronous mutations in RB1 and TP53 and non-synchronous CREBBP and EP300 mutations. Our data showed the benefit of implementing deep sequencing into routine diagnostics. We here identify oncogenic drivers and simultaneously gain further insights into SCLC tumor biology.

Comparison of high resolution melting analysis, pyrosequencing, next generation sequencing and immunohistochemistry to conventional Sanger sequencing for the detection of p.V600E and non-p.V600E BRAF mutations.

BACKGROUND: The approval of vemurafenib in the US 2011 and in Europe 2012 improved the therapy of not resectable or metastatic melanoma. Patients carrying a substitution of valine to glutamic acid at codon 600 (p.V600E) or a substitution of valine to leucine (p.V600K) in BRAF show complete or partial response. Therefore, the precise identification of the underlying somatic mutations is essential. Herein, we evaluate the sensitivity, specificity and feasibility of six different methods for the detection of BRAF mutations. METHODS: Samples harboring p.V600E mutations as well as rare mutations in BRAF exon 15 were compared to wildtype samples. DNA was extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues by manual micro-dissection and automated extraction. BRAF mutational analysis was carried out by high resolution melting (HRM) analysis, pyrosequencing, allele specific PCR, next generation sequencing (NGS) and immunohistochemistry (IHC). All mutations were independently reassessed by Sanger sequencing. Due to the limited tumor tissue available different numbers of samples were analyzed with each method (82, 72, 60, 72, 49 and 82 respectively). RESULTS: There was no difference in sensitivity between the HRM analysis and Sanger sequencing (98%). All mutations down to 6.6% allele frequency could be detected with 100% specificity. In contrast, pyrosequencing detected 100% of the mutations down to 5% allele frequency but exhibited only 90% specificity. The allele specific PCR failed to detect 16.3% of the mutations eligible for therapy with vemurafenib. NGS could analyze 100% of the cases with 100% specificity but exhibited 97.5% sensitivity. IHC showed once cross-reactivity with p.V600R but was a good amendment to HRM. CONCLUSION: Therefore, at present, a combination of HRM and IHC is recommended to increase sensitivity and specificity for routine diagnostic to fulfill the European requirements concerning vemurafenib therapy of melanoma patients.

Four-and-a-half LIM domain protein 2 is a novel regulator of sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1 in CCL19-induced dendritic cell migration.

We identified the four-and-a-half LIM domain protein 2 (FHL2) as a novel regulator of CCL19-induced dendritic cell (DC) migration. Initiation of migration is a hallmark of DC function and plays a central role in the induction and regulation of immune responses. In vivo, DCs continuously acquire Ag in the periphery and migrate to draining lymph nodes, under the influence of local environmental chemotactic factors like CCL19/21 or sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P). We investigated the role of S1P- and RhoA-regulated FHL2 in this process. We found reduced nuclear localization of FHL2 in mature bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs), compared with immature BMDCs, following stimulation with CCL19. Furthermore, in vitro-generated murine FHL2(-/-) BMDCs displayed a significantly increased migratory speed, directionality, and migratory persistence toward the chemokine CCL19 compared with wild-type BMDCs. Moreover, in vivo, FHL2(-/-) BMDCs showed increased migration toward lymphoid organs. FHL2(-/-) BMDCs increased the expression of S1PR1, which was associated with greater Rac activation. An S1PR1 antagonist and knock-down of S1PR1 abrogated the increased migratory speed of FHL2(-/-) BMDCs. Our results identify FHL2 as an important novel regulator of DC migration via regulation of their sensitivity toward environmental migratory cues like S1P and CCL19.

Label-Free Imaging of Single Proteins Secreted from Living Cells via iSCAT Microscopy.

We demonstrate interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy, a method capable of detecting single unlabeled proteins secreted from individual living cells in real time. In this protocol, we cover the fundamental steps to realize an iSCAT microscope and complement it with additional imaging channels to monitor the viability of a cell under study. Following this, we use the method for real-time detection of single proteins as they are secreted from a living cell which we demonstrate with an immortalized B-cell line (Laz388). Necessary steps concerning the preparation of microscope and sample as well as the analysis of the recorded data are discussed. The video protocol demonstrates that iSCAT microscopy offers a straightforward method to study secretion at the single-molecule level.

LIN28B enhanced tumorigenesis in an autochthonous KRASG12V-driven lung carcinoma mouse model.

LIN28B is a RNA-binding protein regulating predominantly let-7 microRNAs with essential functions in inflammation, wound healing, embryonic stem cells, and cancer. LIN28B expression is associated with tumor initiation, progression, resistance, and poor outcome in several solid cancers, including lung cancer. However, the functional role of LIN28B, especially in non-small cell lung adenocarcinomas, remains elusive. Here, we investigated the effects of LIN28B expression on lung tumorigenesis using LIN28B transgenic overexpression in an autochthonous KRASG12V-driven mouse model. We found that LIN28B overexpression significantly increased the number of CD44+/CD326+ tumor cells, upregulated VEGF-A and miR-21 and promoted tumor angiogenesis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) accompanied by enhanced AKT phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of c-MYC. Moreover, LIN28B accelerated tumor initiation and enhanced proliferation which led to a shortened overall survival. In addition, we analyzed lung adenocarcinomas of the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and found LIN28B expression in 24% of KRAS-mutated cases, which underscore the relevance of our model.

Clinical and Pathological Characteristics of KEAP1- and NFE2L2-Mutated Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (NSCLC).

Purpose:KEAP1 and NFE2L2 mutations are associated with impaired prognosis in a variety of cancers and with squamous cell carcinoma formation in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, little is known about frequency, histology dependence, molecular and clinical presentation as well as response to systemic treatment in NSCLC.Experimental Design: Tumor tissue of 1,391 patients with NSCLC was analyzed using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Clinical and pathologic characteristics, survival, and treatment outcome of patients with KEAP1 or NFE2L2 mutations were assessed.Results:KEAP1 mutations occurred with a frequency of 11.3% (n = 157) and NFE2L2 mutations with a frequency of 3.5% (n = 49) in NSCLC patients. In the vast majority of patients, both mutations did not occur simultaneously. KEAP1 mutations were found mainly in adenocarcinoma (AD; 72%), while NFE2L2 mutations were more common in squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC; 59%). KEAP1 mutations were spread over the whole protein, whereas NFE2L2 mutations were clustered in specific hotspot regions. In over 80% of the patients both mutations co-occurred with other cancer-related mutations, among them also targetable aberrations like activating EGFR mutations or MET amplification. Both patient groups showed different patterns of metastases, stage distribution and performance state. No patient with KEAP1 mutation had a response on systemic treatment in first-, second-, or third-line setting. Of NFE2L2-mutated patients, none responded to second- or third-line therapy.Conclusions:KEAP1- and NFE2L2-mutated NSCLC patients represent a highly heterogeneous patient cohort. Both are associated with different histologies and usually are found together with other cancer-related, partly targetable, genetic aberrations. In addition, both markers seem to be predictive for chemotherapy resistance. Clin Cancer Res; 24(13); 3087-96. ©2018 AACR.

Targeted next-generation sequencing for TP53, RAS, BRAF, ALK and NF1 mutations in anaplastic thyroid cancer.

Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) is the most aggressive thyroid cancer with a median survival of 4-6 months. Identification of mutations contributing to aberrant activation of signaling cascades in ATC may provide novel opportunities for targeted therapy. Thirty-nine ATC samples were studied by next-generation sequencing (NGS) with an established gene panel. High quality readout was obtained in 30/39 ATC. Twenty-eight ATC harbored a mutation in at least one of the studied genes: TP53 (18/30), NF1 (11/30), ALK (6/30), NRAS (4/30), ATRX (3/30), BRAF (2/30), HRAS (2/30), KRAS (1/30). In 17/30 ATC (54 %) mutations were found in two or more genes. Twenty-one of the identified variants are listed in COSMIC as somatic mutations reported in other cancer entities. In three ATC samples no mutations were detected and none of the ATCs was positive for BRAFV600E. The most frequent mutations were found in TP53 (60 %), followed by NF1 (37 %). ALK mutations were detected in 20 % of ATC and were more frequent than RAS or BRAF mutations. ATRX mutations were identified in 10 % of the ATC samples. These sequencing data from 30 ATC samples demonstrate the accumulation of genetic alterations in ATC because in 90 % of samples mutations were already found in the investigated nine genes alone. Mutations were found with high prevalence in established tumor suppressor and oncogenes in ATC, such as TP53 and H/K/NRAS, but also, although less frequent, in genes that may harbor the potential for targeted treatment in a subset of ATC patients, such as ALK and NF1.

Heterogeneous Mechanisms of Primary and Acquired Resistance to Third-Generation EGFR Inhibitors.

PURPOSE: To identify novel mechanisms of resistance to third-generation EGFR inhibitors in patients with lung adenocarcinoma that progressed under therapy with either AZD9291 or rociletinib (CO-1686). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We analyzed tumor biopsies from seven patients obtained before, during, and/or after treatment with AZD9291 or rociletinib (CO-1686). Targeted sequencing and FISH analyses were performed, and the relevance of candidate genes was functionally assessed in in vitro models. RESULTS: We found recurrent amplification of either MET or ERBB2 in tumors that were resistant or developed resistance to third-generation EGFR inhibitors and show that ERBB2 and MET activation can confer resistance to these compounds. Furthermore, we identified a KRASG12S mutation in a patient with acquired resistance to AZD9291 as a potential driver of acquired resistance. Finally, we show that dual inhibition of EGFR/MEK might be a viable strategy to overcome resistance in EGFR-mutant cells expressing mutant KRAS CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that heterogeneous mechanisms of resistance can drive primary and acquired resistance to third-generation EGFR inhibitors and provide a rationale for potential combination strategies. Clin Cancer Res; 22(19); 4837-47. ©2016 AACR.

Molecular and clinical evidence for an ARMC5 tumor syndrome: concurrent inactivating germline and somatic mutations are associated with both primary macronodular adrenal hyperplasia and meningioma.

CONTEXT: Primary macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (PMAH) is a rare cause of Cushing's syndrome, which may present in the context of different familial multitumor syndromes. Heterozygous inactivating germline mutations of armadillo repeat containing 5 (ARMC5) have very recently been described as cause for sporadic PMAH. Whether this genetic condition also causes familial PMAH in association with other neoplasias is unclear. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to delineate the molecular cause in a large family with PMAH and other neoplasias. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Whole-genome sequencing and comprehensive clinical and biochemical phenotyping was performed in members of a PMAH affected family. Nodules derived from adrenal surgery and pancreatic and meningeal tumor tissue were analyzed for accompanying somatic mutations in the identified target genes. RESULTS: PMAH presenting either as overt or subclinical Cushing's syndrome was accompanied by a heterozygous germline mutation in ARMC5 (p.A110fs*9) located on chromosome 16. Analysis of tumor tissue showed different somatic ARMC5 mutations in adrenal nodules supporting a second hit hypothesis with inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene. A damaging somatic ARMC5 mutation was also found in a concomitant meningioma (p.R502fs) but not in a pancreatic tumor, suggesting biallelic inactivation of ARMC5 as causal also for the intracranial meningioma. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis further confirms inherited inactivating ARMC5 mutations as a cause of familial PMAH and suggests an additional role for the development of concomitant intracranial meningiomas.

Mutation Profiling of Lung Cancers with Long-Term Response to Gefitinib Therapy.

BACKGROUND: The role of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) in the treatment of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and unknown EGFR mutation status has recently been questioned. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of patients with unknown EGFR mutation status and long-term response (LTR) to gefitinib in the Swiss Iressa expanded access program (EAP). We assessed patient characteristics, and performed Sanger sequencing and next generation sequencing on archived tumor tissue. We hypothesized that EGFR mutations are prevalent in patients with LTR. RESULTS: Of 430 patients in the EAP, 18 (4%) fulfilled our definition of LTR, and 16 of them had archived tumor tissue. Patient characteristics were as expected for age, sex, and smoking history. Median duration of therapy was 38 months (range 24-142 months). Sanger sequencing revealed EGFR exon 18-21 mutations in 6 (38%) of the tumors. Next generation sequencing revealed no further EGFR-mutated cases, but reported in 15 (94%) of the tumors mutations in other genes (ALK, BRAF, DDR2, KEAP1, MET, PTEN, STK11) previously associated with NSCLC. CONCLUSION: Larger studies are needed to define the prognostic values of different driver mutations in patients with NSCLC.

Intermittent high-dose treatment with erlotinib enhances therapeutic efficacy in EGFR-mutant lung cancer.

Treatment with EGFR kinase inhibitors improves progression-free survival of patients with EGFR-mutant lung cancer. However, all patients with initial response will eventually acquire resistance and die from tumor recurrence. We found that intermittent high-dose treatment with erlotinib induced apoptosis more potently and improved tumor shrinkage significantly than the established low doses. In mice carrying EGFR-mutant xenografts intermittent high-dose treatment (200 mg/kg every other day) was tolerable and prolonged progression-free survival and reduced the frequency of acquired resistance. Intermittent EGFR-targeted high-dose schedules induce more profound as well as sustained target inhibition and may afford enhanced therapeutic efficacy.

PIK3CA mutations in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC): genetic heterogeneity, prognostic impact and incidence of prior malignancies.

BACKGROUND: Somatic mutations of the PIK3CA gene have been described in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), but limited data is available on their biological relevance. This study was performed to characterize PIK3CA-mutated NSCLC clinically and genetically. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Tumor tissue collected consecutively from 1144 NSCLC patients within a molecular screening network between March 2010 and March 2012 was analyzed for PIK3CA mutations using dideoxy-sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS). Clinical, pathological, and genetic characteristics of PIK3CA-mutated patients are described and compared with a control group of PIK3CA-wildtype patients. RESULTS: Among the total cohort of 1144 patients we identified 42 (3.7%) patients with PIK3CA mutations in exon 9 and exon 20. These mutations were found with a higher frequency in sqamous cell carcinoma (8.9%) compared to adenocarcinoma (2.9%, p<0.001). The most common PIK3CA mutation was exon 9 E545K. The majority of patients (57.1%) had additional oncogenic driver aberrations. With the exception of EGFR-mutated patients, non of the genetically defined subgroups in this cohort had a significantly better median overall survival. Further, PIK3CA-mutated patients had a significantly higher incidence of malignancy prior to lung cancer (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: PIK3CA-mutated NSCLC represents a clinically and genetically heterogeneous subgroup in adenocarcinomas as well as in squamous cell carcinomas with a higher prevalence of these mutations in sqamous cell carcinoma. PIK3CA mutations have no negative impact on survival after surgery or systemic therapy. However, PIK3CA mutated lung cancer frequently develops in patients with prior malignancies.

Implementation of Amplicon Parallel Sequencing Leads to Improvement of Diagnosis and Therapy of Lung Cancer Patients.

INTRODUCTION: The Network Genomic Medicine Lung Cancer was set up to rapidly translate scientific advances into early clinical trials of targeted therapies in lung cancer performing molecular analyses of more than 3500 patients annually. Because sequential analysis of the relevant driver mutations on fixated samples is challenging in terms of workload, tissue availability, and cost, we established multiplex parallel sequencing in routine diagnostics. The aim was to analyze all therapeutically relevant mutations in lung cancer samples in a high-throughput fashion while significantly reducing turnaround time and amount of input DNA compared with conventional dideoxy sequencing of single polymerase chain reaction amplicons. METHODS: In this study, we demonstrate the feasibility of a 102 amplicon multiplex polymerase chain reaction followed by sequencing on an Illumina sequencer on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue in routine diagnostics. Analysis of a validation cohort of 180 samples showed this approach to require significantly less input material and to be more reliable, robust, and cost-effective than conventional dideoxy sequencing. Subsequently, 2657 lung cancer patients were analyzed. RESULTS: We observed that comprehensive biomarker testing provided novel information in addition to histological diagnosis and clinical staging. In 2657 consecutively analyzed lung cancer samples, we identified driver mutations at the expected prevalence. Furthermore we found potentially targetable DDR2 mutations at a frequency of 3% in both adenocarcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas. CONCLUSION: Overall, our data demonstrate the utility of systematic sequencing analysis in a clinical routine setting and highlight the dramatic impact of such an approach on the availability of therapeutic strategies for the targeted treatment of individual cancer patients.

Assessing redox state and reactive oxygen species in circadian rhythmicity.

Redox homeostasis is an important parameter of cell function and cell signaling. Spatial and temporal alterations of redox state control metabolism, developmental processes, as well as acute responses to environmental stresses and stress acclimation. Redox homeostasis is also linked to the circadian clock. This chapter introduces methods to assess important redox parameters such as the low molecular weight redox metabolites glutathione and ascorbate, their amount and redox state, and H2O2 as reactive oxygen species. In vivo redox cell imaging is described by use of the reduction-oxidation sensitive green fluorescent protein (roGFP). Finally, on the level of posttranslational redox modifications of proteins, methods are shown to assess hyperoxidation of 2-cysteine peroxiredoxin and glutathionylation of peroxiredoxin IIE. The redox state of 2-cysteine peroxiredoxin has been identified as a transcription-independent marker of circadian rhythmicity.