Ixodid ticks and zoonotic tick-borne pathogens of the Western Balkans.

Ixodid ticks are distributed across all countries of the Western Balkans, with a high diversity of species. Many of these species serve as vectors of pathogens of veterinary and medical importance. Given the scattered data from Western Balkan countries, we have conducted a comprehensive review of available literature, including some historical data, with the aim to compile information about all recorded tick species and associated zoonotic pathogens in this region. Based on the collected data, the tick fauna of the Western Balkans encompasses 32 tick species belonging to five genera: Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma. A range of pathogens responsible for human diseases has also been documented, including viruses, bacteria and parasites. In this review, we emphasize the necessity for integrated surveillance and reporting, urging authorities to foster research by providing financial support. Additionally, international and interdisciplinary collaborations should be encouraged that include the exchange of expertise, experiences and resources. The present collaborative effort can effectively address gaps in our knowledge of ticks and tick-borne diseases.

Mitochondrial and microbial diversity of the invasive mosquito vector species Culex tritaeniorhynchus across its extensive inter-continental geographic range.

Background: Culex (Cx.) tritaeniorhynchus is an invasive mosquito species with an extensive and expanding inter-continental distribution, currently reported across Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and now Australia. It is an important vector of medical and veterinary pathogens which cause significant morbidity and mortality in human and animal populations. Across regions endemic for Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), Cx. tritaeniorhynchus is considered the major vector and has also been shown to contribute to the transmission of several other zoonotic arboviruses including Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) and West Nile virus (WNV). Methods: In this study, we used laboratory vector competence experiments to determine if Cx. tritaeniorhynchus from a Southern European population were competent JEV vectors. We also obtained samples from multiple geographically dispersed Cx. tritaeniorhynchus populations from countries within Europe, Africa, Eurasia and Asia to perform phylogenetic analysis to measure the level of mitochondrial divergence using the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( CO1) gene. We also undertook bacterial 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to determine microbial diversity and used multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) to determine any evidence for the presence of strains of the naturally occurring endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia. Results: Cx. tritaeniorhynchus from a Greek population were shown be be competent vectors of JEV with high levels of virus present in saliva. We found a signficant level of mitochondrial genetic diversity using the mosquito CO1 gene between geographically dispersed populations. Furthermore, we report diverse microbiomes identified by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing within and between geographical populations. Evidence for the detection of the endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia was confirmed using Wolbachia-specific PCR and MLST. Conclusions: This study enhances our understanding of the diversity of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and the associated microbiome across its inter-continental range and highlights the need for greater surveillance of this invasive vector species in Europe.

The mosquito species Culex (Cx.) tritaeniorhynchus is expanding its range and is now present in over 50 countries across Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and now Australasia. It can transmit human and animal pathogens, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. This species transmits Japanese encephalitis virus in endemic areas of Asia, and it has also been shown to contribute to the transmission of several other viruses that can infect humans, including Rift Valley fever virus and West Nile virus. In this study, we firstly undertook some lab experiments to show that Cx. tritaeniorhynchus from a Southern European population are competent vectors of Japanese encephalitis virus. We also obtained field mosquitoes from countries within Europe, Africa, Eurasia and Asia and used phylogenetic analysis to demonstrate a high level of mitochondrial divergence within and between populations. In addition, we analysed the bacteria present within mosquitoes and found a high level of microbial diversity. Finally, we present evidence for the presence of Wolbachia endosymbiotic bacteria in some populations of this mosquito species. This study highlights the need for greater surveillance of this invasive vector species ­ particularly in Europe.

VectAbundance: a spatio-temporal database of Aedes mosquitoes observations.

Modelling approaches play a crucial role in supporting local public health agencies by estimating and forecasting vector abundance and seasonality. However, the reliability of these models is contingent on the availability of standardized, high-quality data. Addressing this need, our study focuses on collecting and harmonizing egg count observations of the mosquito Aedes albopictus, obtained through ovitraps in monitoring and surveillance efforts across Albania, France, Italy, and Switzerland from 2010 to 2022. We processed the raw observations to obtain a continuous time series of ovitraps observations allowing for an extensive geographical and temporal coverage of Ae. albopictus population dynamics. The resulting post-processed observations are stored in the open-access database VectAbundance.This initiative addresses the critical need for accessible, high-quality data, enhancing the reliability of modelling efforts and bolstering public health preparedness.

The Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus (Skuse) in Kosovo: First record.

The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, is an invasive mosquito species that is considered a potential vector of about 22 arboviruses, among which dengue, chikungunya and Zika. Here we report the first record of Aedes albopictus in the territory of the Republic of Kosovo. The first finding, in July 2020, was driven by a photo of an adult mosquito published by a citizen in social media. The subsequent field investigation in July 2020 confirmed the presence of adult mosquitoes by human landing catch and collection of eggs in ovitraps at the village Zhur. Monitoring was performed for 7 weeks with ovitraps and BG-Sentinel adult traps at 36 sampling stations from 7 localities, in the Southern part of Kosovo, on the border with Albania. Fifty-two out of 81 ovitrap samples resulted positive for the presence of Ae. albopictus. A total of 2,711 eggs are collected in 22 out 36 stations and a total of 78 adults from 4 out 4 stations with BG Sentinel trap and 15 adults with handled electric aspirator. Our finding shows that the tiger mosquito is expanding its geographical range in the Balkans, southeastern Europe.

Assessment of expertise in morphological identification of mosquito species (Diptera, Culicidae) using photomicrographs.

Accurate identification of insect species is an indispensable and challenging requirement for every entomologist, particularly if the species is involved in disease outbreaks. The European MediLabSecure project designed an identification (ID) exercise available to any willing participant with the aim of assessing and improving knowledge in mosquito taxonomy. The exercise was based on high-definition photomicrographs of mosquitoes (26 adult females and 12 larvae) collected from the western Palaearctic. Sixty-five responses from Europe, North Africa and the Middle East were usable. The study demonstrated that the responders were better at identifying females (82% correct responses) than larvae (63%). When the responders reported that they were sure of the accuracy of their ID, the success rate of ID increased (92% for females and 88% for larvae). The top three tools used for ID were MosKeyTool (72% of responders), the ID key following Becker et al. [2010. Mosquitoes and their control, 2nd edn. Berlin: Springer] (38%), and the CD-ROM of Schaffner et al. [2001. Les moustiques d'Europe: logiciel d'identification et d'enseignement - The mosquitoes of Europe: an identification and training programme. Montpellier: IRD; EID] (32%), while other tools were used by less than 10% of responders. Responders reporting the identification of mosquitoes using the MosKeyTool were significantly better (80% correct responses) than non-MosKeyTool users (69%). Most responders (63%) used more than one ID tool. The feedback from responders in this study was positive, with the exercise being perceived as halfway between educational training and a fun quiz. It raised the importance of further expanding training in mosquito ID for better preparedness of mosquito surveillance and control programmes.

Title: Évaluation de l'expertise en identification morphologique des espèces de moustiques (Diptera, Culicidae) à l'aide de photomicrographies. Abstract: L'identification précise des espèces d'insectes est une exigence indispensable et difficile pour tout entomologiste, en particulier si l'espèce est impliquée dans des épidémies. Le projet européen MediLabSecure a conçu un exercice d'identification (ID) accessible à tout participant volontaire dans le but d'évaluer et d'améliorer les connaissances en taxonomie des moustiques. L'exercice était basé sur des photomicrographies haute définition de moustiques (26 femelles adultes et 12 larves) prélevées dans le Paléarctique occidental. Soixante-cinq réponses d'Europe, d'Afrique du Nord et du Moyen-Orient ont été utilisables. L'étude a démontré que les répondants étaient meilleurs pour identifier les femelles (82 % de réponses correctes) que les larves (63 %). Lorsque les répondants ont déclaré être sûrs de l'exactitude de leur ID, le taux de réussite de l'identification était meilleur (92 % pour les femelles et 88 % pour les larves). Les trois principaux outils utilisés pour les ID étaient MosKeyTool (72 % des répondants), la clé d'identification du livre de Becker et al. (38%) et le CD-ROM de Schaffner et al. (32 %), tandis que d'autres outils étaient utilisés par moins de 10 % des répondants. Les répondants déclarant identifier des moustiques à l'aide de MosKeyTool étaient significativement meilleurs (80 % de réponses correctes) que les non-utilisateurs de MosKeyTool (69 %). La plupart des répondants (63 %) ont utilisé plus d'un outil d'identification. Les commentaires des répondants de cette étude ont été positifs, l'exercice étant perçu comme à mi-chemin entre une formation pédagogique et un quiz amusant. Il a souligné l'importance d'étendre la formation complémentaire à l'identification des moustiques pour une meilleure préparation des programmes de surveillance et de contrôle des moustiques.

A Mark-Release-Recapture Study to Estimate Field Performance of Imported Radio-Sterilized Male Aedes albopictus in Albania.

The pathogen transmitting Aedes albopictus mosquito is spreading rapidly in Europe, putting millions of humans and animals at risk. This species is well-established in Albania since its first detection in 1979. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is increasingly gaining momentum worldwide as a component of area-wide-integrated pest management. However, estimating how the sterile males will perform in the field and the size of target populations is crucial for better decision-making, designing and elaborating appropriate SIT pilot trials, and subsequent large-scale release strategies. A mark-release-recapture (MRR) experiment was carried out in Albania within a highly urbanized area in the city of Tirana. The radio-sterilized adults of Ae. albopictus Albania strain males were transported by plane from Centro Agricoltura Ambiente (CAA) mass-production facility (Bologna, Italy), where they were reared. In Albania, sterile males were sugar-fed, marked with fluorescent powder, and released. The aim of this study was to estimate, under field conditions, their dispersal capacity, probability of daily survival and competitiveness, and the size of the target population. In addition, two adult mosquito collection methods were also evaluated: BG-Sentinel traps baited with BG-Lure and CO2, (BGS) versus human landing catch (HLC). The overall recapture rates did not differ significantly between the two methods (2.36% and 1.57% of the total male released were recaptured respectively by BGS and HLC), suggesting a similar trapping efficiency under these conditions. Sterile males traveled a mean distance of 93.85 ± 42.58 m and dispersed up to 258 m. Moreover, they were observed living in the field up to 15 days after release with an average life expectancy of 4.26 ± 0.80 days. Whether mosquitoes were marked with green, blue, yellow, or pink, released at 3.00 p.m. or 6.00 p.m., there was no significant difference in the recapture, dispersal, and survival rates in the field. The Fried competitiveness index was estimated at 0.28. This mark-release-recapture study provided important data for better decision-making and planning before moving to pilot SIT trials in Albania. Moreover, it also showed that both BG-traps and HLC were successful in monitoring adult mosquitoes and provided similar estimations of the main entomological parameters needed.

AIMSurv: First pan-European harmonized surveillance of Aedes invasive mosquito species of relevance for human vector-borne diseases.

Human and animal vector-borne diseases, particularly mosquito-borne diseases, are emerging or re-emerging worldwide. Six Aedes invasive mosquito (AIM) species were introduced to Europe since the 1970s: Aedes aegypti, Ae. albopictus, Ae. japonicus, Ae. koreicus, Ae. atropalpus and Ae. triseriatus. Here, we report the results of AIMSurv2020, the first pan-European surveillance effort for AIMs. Implemented by 42 volunteer teams from 24 countries. And presented in the form of a dataset named "AIMSurv Aedes Invasive Mosquito species harmonized surveillance in Europe. AIM-COST Action. Project ID: CA17108". AIMSurv2020 harmonizes field surveillance methodologies for sampling different AIMs life stages, frequency and minimum length of sampling period, and data reporting. Data include minimum requirements for sample types and recommended requirements for those teams with more resources. Data are published as a Darwin Core archive in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility- Spain, comprising a core file with 19,130 records (EventID) and an occurrences file with 19,743 records (OccurrenceID). AIM species recorded in AIMSurv2020 were Ae. albopictus, Ae. japonicus and Ae. koreicus, as well as native mosquito species.

Sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in eight Balkan countries: historical review and region-wide entomological survey.

BACKGROUND: Sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) are medically important vectors of human and veterinary disease-causing agents. Among these, the genus Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae), and phleboviruses are of utmost importance. Despite such significance, updated information about sand fly fauna is missing for Balkan countries where both sand flies and autochtonous leishmaniases are historically present and recently re-emerging. Therefore, a review of historical data on sand fly species composition and distribution in the region was followed by a large-scale entomological survey in eight Balkan countries to provide a recent update on local sand fly fauna. METHODS: The literature search involved the period 1910-2019. The entomological survey was conducted at 1189 sampling stations in eight countries (Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and Slovenia), covering 49 settlements and 358 sampling sites between June and October in the years 2014 and 2016, accumulating 130 sampling days. We performed a total of 1189 trapping nights at these stations using two types of traps (light and CO2 attraction traps) in each location. Sampling was performed with a minimal duration of 6 (Montenegro) and a maximal of 47 days (Serbia) between 0-1000 m.a.s.l. Collected sand flies were morphologically identified. RESULTS: In total, 8490 sand fly specimens were collected. Morphological identification showed presence of 14 species belonging to genera Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia. Historical data were critically reviewed and updated with our recent findings. Six species were identified in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2 new records), 5 in Montenegro (2 new records), 5 in Croatia (2 new records), 9 in Bulgaria (5 new records), 11 in North Macedonia (1 new record), 10 in Serbia (no new records), 9 in Kosovo (3 new records) and 4 in Slovenia (no new records). CONCLUSIONS: This study presents results of the first integrated sand fly fauna survey of such scale for the Balkan region, providing first data on sand fly populations for four countries in the study area and presenting new species records for six countries and updated species lists for all surveyed countries. Our findings demonstrate presence of proven and suspected vectors of several Leishmania species.

The composition, diversity, and distribution of mosquito fauna (Diptera: Culicidae) in Kosovo.

The aim of this study is to identify the mosquito species that currently exist and their distributions in Kosovo in order to determine current potential endemic zones and areas at a higher risk for future epidemics. These scientific data will be shared with public health authorities for implementing mosquito control programs. During a two-year period of monitoring in 48 localities in 23 provinces in Kosovo, a total of 1,604 mosquitoes representing 13 species and six genera were collected and morphologically identified. Members of species complexes were also classified to species using DNA barcoding. In total, 13 species were identified with Culex pipiens s.l., the predominant species with an abundance rate of 39%. The remaining 12 species identified were grouped into five genera: Anopheles, Aedes, Coquillettidia, Culiseta, Uranotaenia, including species that are vectors of arboviruses in other parts of the world.

Altitudinal variations in wing morphology of Aedes albopictus (Diptera, Culicidae) in Albania, the region where it was first recorded in Europe.

The rapid spread and settlement of Aedes albopictus mosquitoes across at least 28 countries in Europe, as well as several countries in Asia Minor, the Middle East and Africa, has made it one of the most invasive species of all time. Even though the biology of Ae. albopictus in its native tropical environment has been documented for a long time, the biology and ecology of this species in newly colonized temperate environments remain poorly known despite its important role as a vector for about twenty arboviruses. In this context, the main goals of this work were to investigate Ae. albopictus phenotypic variations at a local scale in Albania, the country where Ae. albopictus was first recorded in Europe, and to determine if its phenotypes could be affected by altitude. Analysis of Ae. albopictus wing phenotypes was performed using a geometric morphometric approach. We observed shape and size variations among altitudinal populations of Ae. albopictus. Differences of wing phenotypes were highlighted between altitude groups for male and female mosquitoes. The phenotypic variations observed in Ae. albopictus between altitudinal groups indicated these populations are exposed to environmental and ecological pressures. These results suggest the presence of phenotypic plasticity in this species.

TITLE: Variations phénotypiques des ailes d'Aedes albopictus (Diptera, Culicidae) en fonction de l'altitude en Albanie, la région où il a été signalé pour la première fois en Europe. ABSTRACT: La propagation et l'établissement rapides du moustique Aedes albopictus dans au moins 28 pays d'Europe, ainsi que dans plusieurs pays d'Asie mineure, du Moyen-Orient et d'Afrique, en ont fait l'une des espèces les plus invasives de tous les temps. Bien que la biologie d'Ae. albopictus dans son milieu tropical naturel soit documentée depuis longtemps, la biologie et l'écologie de cette espèce dans les milieux tempérés nouvellement colonisés restent mal connues malgré son rôle important de vecteur d'une vingtaine d'arbovirus. Dans ce contexte, les principaux objectifs de ce travail étaient d'étudier les variations phénotypiques d'Ae. albopictus à l'échelle locale en Albanie, le pays où Ae. albopictus a été signalé pour la première fois en Europe, et de déterminer si ses phénotypes pourraient être affectés par l'altitude. L'analyse des phénotypes des ailes d'Ae. albopictus a été effectuée en utilisant une approche de morphométrie géométrique. Nous avons observé des variations de forme et de taille parmi les populations altitudinales d'Ae. albopictus. Des différences de phénotypes d'ailes ont été mises en évidence entre les groupes d'altitude pour les moustiques mâles et femelles. Les variations phénotypiques observées chez Ae. albopictus entre les groupes altitudinaux indiquent que ces populations sont exposées à des pressions environnementales et écologiques. Ces résultats suggèrent la présence d'une plasticité phénotypique chez cette espèce.

Detection of a Novel Phlebovirus (Drin Virus) from Sand Flies in Albania.

Phlebotomine sand flies are generalist vectors with significant implications for public health. They are able to transmit phleboviruses that cause sand fly fever, headaches, or meningitis in humans. Albania is a country in Southeast Europe with a typical Mediterranean climate which provides convenient conditions for the presence of sand flies. Hence, the circulation of phleboviruses, such as the Toscana and Balkan viruses, has been recently described in the country. We followed a virus discovery approach on sand fly samples collected in 2015 and 2016 in seven regions of Albania, with the aim to investigate and characterize potentially circulating phleboviruses in phlebotomine sand flies. A presumed novel phlebovirus was detected in a pool consisting of 24 Phlebotomus neglectus males. The virus was provisionally named the Drin virus after a river near the locality of Kukës, where the infected sand flies were trapped. Genetic and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Drin virus is closely related to the Corfou (CFUV) virus, isolated in the 1980s from Phlebotomus major sand flies on the eponymous island of Greece, and may also be involved in human infections because of its similarity to the sand fly fever Sicilian virus. The latter justifies further studies to specifically address this concern. Together with recent findings, this study confirms that Albania and the Balkan peninsula are hot spots for phleboviruses.

Forecasting the spatial and seasonal dynamic of Aedes albopictus oviposition activity in Albania and Balkan countries.

The increasing spread of the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, in Europe and US raises public health concern due to the species competence to transmit several exotic human arboviruses, among which dengue, chikungunya and Zika, and urges the development of suitable modeling approach to forecast the spatial and temporal distribution of the mosquito. Here we developed a dynamical species distribution modeling approach forecasting Ae. albopictus eggs abundance at high spatial (0.01 degree WGS84) and temporal (weekly) resolution over 10 Balkan countries, using temperature times series of Modis data products and altitude as input predictors. The model was satisfactorily calibrated and validated over Albania based observed eggs abundance data weekly monitored during three years. For a given week of the year, eggs abundance was mainly predicted by the number of eggs and the mean temperature recorded in the preceding weeks. That is, results are in agreement with the biological cycle of the mosquito, reflecting the effect temperature on eggs spawning, maturation and hatching. The model, seeded by initial egg values derived from a second model, was then used to forecast the spatial and temporal distribution of eggs abundance over the selected Balkan countries, weekly in 2011, 2012 and 2013. The present study is a baseline to develop an easy-handling forecasting model able to provide information useful for promoting active surveillance and possibly prevention of Ae. albopictus colonization in presently non-infested areas in the Balkans as well as in other temperate regions.

The current status of phlebotomine sand flies in Albania and incrimination of Phlebotomus neglectus (Diptera, Psychodidae) as the main vector of Leishmania infantum.

The incidence of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in Albania is higher than in other countries of southern Europe, however the role of local sand fly species in the transmission of Leishmania infantum was not addressed conclusively. In 2006, a country-wide collection of sand flies performed in 14 sites selected based on recent occurrence of VL cases showed that Phlebotomus neglectus was by far the most prevalent species (95.6%). Furthermore, 15% of pools made from 422 P. neglectus females tested positive for Leishmania sp. genomic DNA. In the same year, Culicoides trapping was performed for bluetongue disease surveillance in 91 sites of southern Albania, targeting livestock farms regardless recent occurrence of VL in the surveyed areas. In 35 sites where sand flies were collected along with midges, Phlebotomus perfiliewi was the most prevalent among the Phlebotomus species identified, however search for leishmanial DNA in females of this species was unsuccessful. In 2011, sand flies were trapped in 4 sites of north Albania characterized by high VL incidence, and females were dissected to search for Leishmania infections. Both P. neglectus and P. tobbi were collected at high densities. Two positive specimens were detected from a sample of 64 P. neglectus trapped in one site (3.1%). Parasites were successfully cultured from one specimen and characterized as belonging to Leishmania infantum zymodeme MON-1, the only zymodeme so far identified as the agent of human and canine leishmaniasis in the country. Altogether our studies indicate that P. neglectus is the main leishmaniasis vector in Albania.

Detection of Leishmania infantum and a Novel Phlebovirus (Balkan Virus) from Sand Flies in Albania.

OBJECTIVE: To organize entomological campaigns to trap sand flies in selected regions of Albania and to test them for the presence of existing or new phleboviruses and for leishmania DNA. METHODS: Sand flies were collected in 14 locations from May to October 2014 using three different types of traps. Pools with a maximum of 30 individuals were prepared according to gender, trapping site, and trapping date; they were tested for the presence of (1) phlebovirus RNA with three different PCR systems (2) and Leishmania DNA using two different real-time PCR assays. RESULTS: A total of 972 sand flies (568 females, 404 males) were aliquoted to 55 pools. Three pools (in two different regions) were positive for Leishmania infantum. Two pools (Kruje region) were positive for phlebovirus RNA and a 575-nucleotide (nt) colinearized sequence of a novel virus most closely related to but clearly distinct from Tehran virus (16% and 3% divergence at nt and amino acid levels). Next generation sequencing analysis indicated that this virus might be transmitted by either Phlebotomus neglectus, Phlebotomus tobbi, or both vectors. CONCLUSIONS: Visceral leishmaniasis has been clinically recognized in Albania for at least 80 years; however, this is the first time that L. infantum, detected by molecular means, has been reported in sand flies in Albania. At the outset of this study, only Adria virus (Salehabad species) was recognized in Albania. A novel virus, Balkan virus, was identified and genetic analysis revealed that it belongs to the Sandfly fever Naples virus group containing human pathogens.

Enhancement of Aedes albopictus collections by ovitrap and sticky adult trap.

BACKGROUND: In the last decades, Aedes albopictus has become an increasing public health threat in tropical as well as in more recently invaded temperate areas due to its capacity to transmit several human arboviruses, among which Dengue, Chikungunya and Zika. Enhancing the efficiency of currently used collection approaches, such as ovitraps and sticky traps, is desirable for optimal monitoring of the species abundance, for assessment of the risk of arbovirus transmission and for the optimisation of control activities. FINDINGS: Two sets of 4 × 4 Latin-square experiments were carried out in Tirana (Albania) to test whether modifications in ovitrap shape and size and in oviposition substrate would increase collections of Ae. albopictus eggs and whether hay-infusion would increase adult catches by sticky trap. Generalized Linear Mixed Models with negative binomial error distribution were carried out to analyse the data. Cylindrical ovitraps lined with germination paper yielded significantly higher egg catches than those exploiting either the (commonly used) wooden paddles or floating polystyrene blocks as oviposition substrates. No difference was observed between cylindrical and conical shaped ovitraps. Ovitraps and sticky traps baited with hay infusion yielded significantly higher egg and adult catches than un-baited ones. A significant relationship between ovitrap and sticky trap catches was observed both in the absence and in the presence of attractants, with ovitrap catches increasing more than sticky trap catches at increasing adult female densities. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides grounds for optimisation of ovitraps and sticky traps as monitoring tools for Ae. albopictus by (i) supporting use of germination paper as most appropriate oviposition substrate; (ii) suggesting the possible use of stackable conical ovitraps for large scale monitoring; (iii) confirming the use of hay-infusion to increase egg catches in ovitraps, and showing that hay-infusion also significant increases adult catches by sticky traps.