The dark side of apnea: altered 24-hour melatonin secretion in obstructive sleep apnea (OSAS) is disease severity dependent.

PURPOSE: Melatonin aids in the synchronization of the circadian rhythm to the external environment. Few studies have tried to elucidate the relationship between melatonin and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). These often include few patients, do not differentiate between OSAS severity and/or do not analyse a 24-h melatonin profile. This study set out to investigate disease severity dependent differences in 24-h salivary melatonin secretion of OSAS patients compared to a reference population in a retrospective design. METHODS: 24-h salivary melatonin profiles of 169 OSAS patients were analysed (55 light, 66 moderate, 48 severe) as well as 91 reference patients. Several aspects of the melatonin curve were analysed and stratified according to OSAS severity. Parameters included: dim light melatonin onset (DLMO), time of returning below DLMO (DLMOoff), peak melatonin concentration and time, and total melatonin exposure. RESULTS: Significant effects were corrected for confounding by age and sex using linear regression. Our analysis shows that, compared to reference and in a disease dependent manner, OSAS patients have a significantly lower 24-h melatonin curve, lower melatonin peak concentration, lower total melatonin exposure and a smaller proportion of patients reach DLMO. The differences in peak melatonin production and total melatonin exposure were resistant to confounding by age and/or sex. CONCLUSION: This study describes clear OSAS severity dependent abnormalities in melatonin production in OSAS patients, independent of sex and/or age. Future research should indicate whether oral melatonin supplementation has beneficial effects in OSAS patients with attenuated endogenous melatonin production.

Ultrahigh-resolution MRI reveals structural brain differences in serotonin transporter knockout rats after sucrose and cocaine self-administration.

Excessive use of cocaine is known to induce changes in brain white and gray matter. It is unknown whether the extent of these changes is related to individual differences in vulnerability to cocaine addiction. One factor increasing vulnerability involves reduced expression of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT). Human studies have shown that inherited 5-HTT downregulation is associated with structural changes in the brain. These genotype-related structural changes may contribute to risk for cocaine addiction. Here, we tested this idea by using ultrahigh-resolution structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on postmortem tissue of 5-HTT-/- and wild-type (5-HTT+/+ ) rats with a history of long access to cocaine or sucrose (control) self-administration. We found that 5-HTT-/- rats, compared with wild-type control animals, self-administered more cocaine, but not sucrose, under long-access conditions. Ultrahigh-resolution structural MRI subsequently revealed that, independent of sucrose or cocaine self-administration, 5-HTT-/- rats had a smaller amygdala. Moreover, we found an interaction between genotype and type of reward for dorsal raphe nucleus volume. The data point to an important but differential role of the amygdala and dorsal raphe nucleus in 5-HTT genotype-dependent vulnerability to cocaine addiction.

Appetitive to aversive counter-conditioning as intervention to reduce reinstatement of reward-seeking behavior: the role of the serotonin transporter.

Counter-conditioning can be a valid strategy to reduce reinstatement of reward-seeking behavior. However, this has not been tested in laboratory animals with extended cocaine-taking backgrounds nor is it well understood, which individual differences may contribute to its effects. Here, we set out to investigate the influence of serotonin transporter (5-HTT) genotype on the effectiveness of counter-conditioning after extended access to cocaine self-administration. To this end, 5-HTT+/+ and 5-HTT-/- rats underwent a touch screen-based approach to test if reward-induced reinstatement of responding to a previously counter-conditioned cue is reduced, compared with a non-counter-conditioned cue, in a within-subject manner. We observed an overall extinction deficit of cocaine-seeking behavior in 5-HTT-/- rats and a resistance to punishment during the counter-conditioning session. Furthermore, we observed a significant decrease in reinstatement to cocaine and sucrose associated cues after counter-conditioning but only in 5-HTT+/+ rats. In short, we conclude that the paradigm we used was able to produce effects of counter-conditioning of sucrose seeking behavior in line with what is described in literature, and we demonstrate that it can be effective even after long-term exposure to cocaine, in a genotype-dependent manner.

d-Cycloserine enhanced extinction of cocaine-induced conditioned place preference is attenuated in serotonin transporter knockout rats.

d-Cycloserine (DCS), a partial NMDA receptor agonist, has been proposed as a cognitive enhancer to facilitate the extinction of drug-related memories. However, it is unknown whether there are individual differences in the efficacy of DCS. Here, we set out to investigate the influence of serotonin transporter (5-HTT) genotype on DCS treatment outcome and the underlying neural mechanism. To that end, we first determined the mRNA levels of several NMDA receptor subunits and observed a reduction in NR1/NR2C receptors in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens of 5-HTT-/- compared with 5-HTT+/+ rats. Based on this finding, we hypothesized a lower sensitivity to DCS in the 5-HTT-/- rats. To test this, rats were trained in a cocaine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. A significant extinction of CPP was observed in 5-HTT+/+ rats receiving 1 mg/kg i.v. DCS, while a similar effect was found in the 5-HTT-/- rats only after 5 mg/kg. Following CPP, we tested if DCS were able to reduce FosB/∆FosB protein expression, a molecular switch for cocaine-seeking behaviour. We observed an overall lower number of FosB/∆FosB positive cells in 5-HTT-/- ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala and an overall effect of DCS treatment on the number of positive cells in the nucleus accumbens. In conclusion, in this study, we show that the dosing of DCS to facilitate the extinction of cocaine-seeking behaviour is, at least partially, determined by 5-HTT genotype.

Individual differences in cocaine addiction: maladaptive behavioural traits.

Cocaine use leads to addiction in only a subset of individuals. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these individual differences in the transition from cocaine use to cocaine abuse is important to develop treatment strategies. There is agreement that specific behavioural traits increase the risk for addiction. As such, both high impulsivity and high anxiety have been reported to predict (compulsive) cocaine self-administration behaviour. Here, we set out a new view explaining how these two behavioural traits may affect addictive behaviour. According to psychological and psychiatric evolutionary views, organisms flourish well when they fit (match) their environment by trait and genotype. However, under non-fit conditions, the need to compensate the failure to deal with this environment increases, and, as a consequence, the functional use of rewarding drugs like cocaine may also increase. It suggests that neither impulsivity nor anxiety are bad per se, but that the increased risk to develop cocaine addiction is dependent on whether behavioural traits are adaptive or maladaptive in the environment to which the animals are exposed. This 'behavioural (mal)adaptation view' on individual differences in vulnerability to cocaine addiction may help to improve therapies for addiction.

Alterations of mitochondrial dynamics in serotonin transporter knockout rats: A possible role in the fear extinction recall mechanisms.

Stress-related mental disorders encompass a plethora of pathologies that share the exposure to a negative environment as trigger for their development. The vulnerability to the effects of a negative environment is not equal to all but differs between individuals based on the genetic background makeup. Here, to study the molecular mechanisms potentially underlying increased threat anticipation, we employed an animal model showing this symptom (5-HTT knockout rats) which we exposed to Pavlovian fear conditioning (FC). We investigated the role of mitochondria, taking advantage of the recent evidence showing that the dynamic of these organelles is dysregulated after stress exposure. Behavioral experiments revealed that, during the second day of extinction of the FC paradigm, 5-HTT knockout (5-HTT-/-) animals showed a lack of fear extinction recall. From a mechanistic standpoint, we carried out our molecular analyses on the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, given their role in the management of the fear response due to their tight connection. We demonstrated that mitochondrial dynamics are impaired in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex of 5-HTT-/- rats. The dissection of the potential contributing factors revealed a critical role in the mechanisms regulating fission and fusion that are dysregulated in transgenic animals. Furthermore, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and the production of antioxidant enzymes were altered in these brain regions in 5-HTT-/- rats. In summary, our data suggest that increased extracellular 5-HT levels cause an unbalance of mitochondrial functionality that could contribute to the reduced extinction recall of 5-HTT-/- rats, pointing out the role of mitochondrial dynamics in the etiology of psychiatric disorders. Our findings, also, provide some interesting insights into the targeted development of drugs to treat such disorders.

Median and Dorsal Raphe Serotonergic Neurons Control Moderate Versus Compulsive Cocaine Intake.

BACKGROUND: Reduced expression of the serotonin transporter (SERT) promotes anxiety and cocaine intake in both humans and rats. We tested the hypothesis that median raphe nucleus (MRN) and dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) serotonergic projections differentially mediate these phenotypes. METHODS: We used virally mediated RNA interference to locally downregulate SERT expression and compared the results with those of constitutive SERT knockout. Rats were allowed either short access (ShA) (1 hour) or long access (LgA) (6 hours) to cocaine self-administration to model moderate versus compulsive-like cocaine taking. RESULTS: SERT knockdown in the MRN increased cocaine intake selectively under ShA conditions and, like ShA cocaine self-administration, reduced corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) immunodensity in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. In contrast, SERT knockdown in the DRN increased cocaine intake selectively under LgA conditions and, like LgA cocaine self-administration, reduced CRF immunodensity in the central nucleus of the amygdala. SERT knockdown in the MRN or DRN produced anxiety-like behavior, as did withdrawal from ShA or LgA cocaine self-administration. The phenotype of SERT knockout rats was a summation of the phenotypes generated by MRN- and DRN-specific SERT knockdown. CONCLUSIONS: Our results highlight a differential role of serotonergic projections arising from the MRN and DRN in the regulation of cocaine intake. We propose that a cocaine-induced shift from MRN-driven serotonergic control of CRF levels in the hypothalamus to DRN-driven serotonergic control of CRF levels in the amygdala may contribute to the transition from moderate to compulsive intake of cocaine.

Aversive Counterconditioning Attenuates Reward Signaling in the Ventral Striatum.

Appetitive conditioning refers to the process of learning cue-reward associations and is mediated by the mesocorticolimbic system. Appetitive conditioned responses are difficult to extinguish, especially for highly salient reward such as food and drugs. We investigate whether aversive counterconditioning can alter reward reinstatement in the ventral striatum in healthy volunteers using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In the initial conditioning phase, two different stimuli were reinforced with a monetary reward. In the subsequent counterconditioning phase, one of these stimuli was paired with an aversive shock to the wrist. In the following extinction phase, none of the stimuli were reinforced. In the final reinstatement phase, reward was reinstated by informing the participants that the monetary gain could be doubled. Our fMRI data revealed that reward signaling in the ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area following reinstatement was smaller for the stimulus that was counterconditioned with an electrical shock, compared to the non-counterconditioned stimulus. A functional connectivity analysis showed that aversive counterconditioning strengthened striatal connectivity with the hippocampus and insula. These results suggest that reward signaling in the ventral striatum can be attenuated through aversive counterconditioning, possibly by concurrent retrieval of the aversive association through enhanced connectivity with hippocampus and insula.

The role of the dopamine D1 receptor in social cognition: studies using a novel genetic rat model.

Social cognition is an endophenotype that is impaired in schizophrenia and several other (comorbid) psychiatric disorders. One of the modulators of social cognition is dopamine, but its role is not clear. The effects of dopamine are mediated through dopamine receptors, including the dopamine D1 receptor (Drd1). Because current Drd1 receptor agonists are not Drd1 selective, pharmacological tools are not sufficient to delineate the role of the Drd1. Here, we describe a novel rat model with a genetic mutation in Drd1 in which we measured basic behavioural phenotypes and social cognition. The I116S mutation was predicted to render the receptor less stable. In line with this computational prediction, this Drd1 mutation led to a decreased transmembrane insertion of Drd1, whereas Drd1 expression, as measured by Drd1 mRNA levels, remained unaffected. Owing to decreased transmembrane Drd1 insertion, the mutant rats displayed normal basic motoric and neurological parameters, as well as locomotor activity and anxiety-like behaviour. However, measures of social cognition like social interaction, scent marking, pup ultrasonic vocalizations and sociability, were strongly reduced in the mutant rats. This profile of the Drd1 mutant rat offers the field of neuroscience a novel genetic rat model to study a series of psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, autism, depression, bipolar disorder and drug addiction.

Reduced cocaine-induced serotonin, but not dopamine and noradrenaline, release in rats with a genetic deletion of serotonin transporters.

It has recently been proposed that the increased reinforcing properties of cocaine and ecstasy observed in rats with a genetic deletion of serotonin transporters are the result of a reduction in the psychostimulant-induced release of serotonin. Here we provide the neurochemical evidence in favor of this hypothesis and show that changes in synaptic levels of dopamine or noradrenaline are not very likely to play an important role in the previously reported enhanced psychostimulant intake of these serotonin transporter knockout rats. The results may very well explain why human subjects displaying a reduced expression of serotonin transporters have an increased risk to develop addiction.

Serotonin transporter genotype x construction stress interaction in rats.

A well-known example for gene x environment interactions in psychiatry is the one involving the low activity (s) allelic variant of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) that in the context of stress increases risk for depression. In analogy, 5-HTT knockout rodents are highly responsive to early life, but also adult external stressors, albeit conflicting data have been obtained. In our study on emotion and cognition using homozygous 5-HTT knockout (5-HTT(-/-)) and wild-type (5-HTT(+/+)) rats we have been confronted with animal facility construction, which were associated with severe lifetime stress (noise and vibrations). To assess the impact of construction stress on well-established 5-HTT(-/-) rat phenotypes we conducted ad hoc analyses of 5-HTT(-/-) and 5-HTT(+/+) rats that grew up before and during the construction. The reproductive capacity of the parents of the experimental 5-HTT(+/-) rats was significantly decreased. Further, 5-HTT(-/-) anxiety-related phenotypes in the elevated plus maze and social interaction tests were abolished after construction noise exposure, due to increased anxiety in 5-HTT(+/+) rats and decreased anxiety in 5-HTT(-/-) rats (social interaction test only). In addition, reversal learning was improved in 5-HTT(+/+) and, to a milder extent, decreased in 5-HTT(-/-) rats. Finally, construction stress genotype-independently increased behavioural despair in the forced swim test. In conclusion, severe construction stress induces 5-HTT genotype-dependent 'for-better-and-for-worse' effects. These data importantly contribute to the understanding of 5-HTT gene x environment interactions and show the risk of losing genotype effects by construction stress.