Association of oral microbiome with oral human papillomavirus infection: a population study of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2009-2012.

BACKGROUND: Oral human papillomavirus(HPV) infection and the oral microbiome are associated with oropharyngeal cancer. However, population-based data on the association of oral microbiome with oral HPV infection are limited. METHOD: We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 5,496 participants aged 20-59 in National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys(NHANES):2009-2012. The association between either oral microbiome alpha diversity or beta diversity and oral HPV infection was assessed using multivariable logistic regression or principal coordinate analyses(PCoA) and multivariate analysis of variance(PERMANOVA). RESULTS: For alpha diversity, we found a lower number of observed Amplicon sequence variants(ASVs) (adjusted odds ratio[aOR] = 0.996; 95%CI = 0.992-0.999) and reduced Faith's Phylogenetic Diversity(aOR = 0.95; 95%CI = 0.90-0.99) associated with high-risk oral HPV infection in the overall population. This trend was observed in males for both high-risk and any oral HPV infection. Beta diversity showed differentiation of oral microbiome community by high-risk oral HPV infection as measured by Bray-Curtis dissimilarity (R2 = 0.054%; P = .029) and unweighted UniFrac distance (R2 = 0.046%; P = .045) among the overall population, and associations were driven by males. CONCLUSIONS: Both oral microbiome alpha diversity(within-sample richness and phylogenetic diversity) and beta diversity(heterogeneous dispersion of oral microbiome community) are associated with HPV infection. Longitudinal studies are needed to characterize the role of the microbiome in the natural history of oral HPV infection.

Insertive condom-protected and condomless vaginal sex both have a profound impact on the penile immune correlates of HIV susceptibility.

The penis is the primary site of HIV acquisition in heterosexual men. Elevated penile inflammatory cytokines increase sexual acquisition risk, and topically applied cytokines enhance foreskin HIV susceptibility in an explant model. However, the impact of penile-vaginal sex on these immune parameters is undefined. Heterosexual couples were recruited to the Sex, Couples and Science (SECS) Study, with the collection of penile swabs, semen, cervico-vaginal secretions, and blood after a period of abstinence, and repeated sampling up to 72 hours after either condomless (n = 30) or condom-protected (n = 8) penile-vaginal sex. Soluble immune parameters were quantified by multiplex immunoassay. Co-primary immune endpoints were penile levels of IL-8 and MIG, cytokines previously linked to penile HIV acquisition. One hour after sex there were dramatic increases in penile IL-8 and MIG levels, regardless of condom use, with a gradual return to baseline by 72 hours; similar patterns were observed for other chemoattractant chemokines. Penile cytokine changes were similar in circumcised and uncircumcised men, and repeated measures ANOVA and ANCOVA models demonstrated that the degree of change after condomless sex was explained by cytokine levels in their partners' cervico-vaginal secretions. This may have important implications for the biology of penile HIV acquisition.

Age-Specific Prevalence of Anal and Cervical Human Papillomavirus Infection and High-Grade Lesions in 11 177 Women by Human Immunodeficiency Virus Status: A Collaborative Pooled Analysis of 26 Studies.

BACKGROUND: Age-specific data on anal, and corresponding cervical, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection are needed to inform female anal cancer prevention. METHODS: We centrally reanalyzed individual-level data from 26 studies reporting HPV prevalence in paired anal and cervical samples by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status and age. For women with HIV (WWH) with anal high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions or worse (HSIL+), we also investigated concurrent cervical cytopathology. RESULTS: In HIV-negative women, HPV16 prevalence decreased significantly with age, both at anus (4.3% at 15-24 years to 1.0% at ≥55 years; ptrend = 0.0026) and cervix (7.4% to 1.7%; ptrend < 0.0001). In WWH, HPV16 prevalence decreased with age at cervix (18.3% to 7.2%; ptrend = 0.0035) but not anus (11.5% to 13.9%; ptrend = 0.5412). Given anal HPV16 positivity, concurrent cervical HPV16 positivity also decreased with age, both in HIV-negative women (ptrend = 0.0005) and WWH (ptrend = 0.0166). Among 48 WWH with HPV16-positive anal HSIL+, 27 (56%) were cervical high-risk HPV-positive, including 8 with cervical HPV16, and 5 were cervical HSIL+. CONCLUSIONS: Age-specific shifts in HPV16 prevalence from cervix to anus suggest that HPV infections in the anus persist longer, or occur later in life, than in the cervix, particularly in WWH. This is an important consideration when assessing the utility of cervical screening results to stratify anal cancer risk.

Optimizing the vaginal microbiome as a potential strategy to reduce heterosexual HIV transmission.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a proinflammatory genital condition characterized by high vaginal bacterial diversity and a paucity of Lactobacillus species. BV has been linked to an elevated risk of HIV acquisition among HIV-negative women and of forward HIV transmission to male sex partners among women living with HIV (adjusted hazard ratios of 1.69 and 3.17, respectively), potentially by eliciting genital inflammation in women with BV and their male sex partners. BV is also highly prevalent among women in sub-Saharan Africa, suggesting that BV treatment may have potential as an HIV prevention strategy. BV is typically treated with antibiotics but recurrence rates are high, possibly because treatment does not directly promote Lactobacillus growth. More recently, BV treatment strategies incorporating live biotherapeutic lactobacilli have led to sustained optimization of the vaginal microbiome and a decrease in inflammatory biomarkers previously associated with HIV susceptibility. Future studies are urgently needed to evaluate BV treatment strategies that can optimize the vaginal microbiome in the long term through colonization with H2 O2 -producing vaginal lactobacilli and to assess whether vaginal microbiota optimization is able to reduce the risk of HIV transmission.

Longitudinal Assessment of SARS-CoV-2-Specific T Cell Cytokine-Producing Responses for 1 Year Reveals Persistence of Multicytokine Proliferative Responses, with Greater Immunity Associated with Disease Severity.

Cell-mediated immunity is critical for long-term protection against most viral infections, including coronaviruses. We studied 23 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected survivors over a 1-year post-symptom onset (PSO) interval by ex vivo cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assay (ELISpot) assay. All subjects demonstrated SARS-CoV-2-specific gamma interferon (IFN-γ), interleukin 2 (IL-2), and granzyme B (GzmB) T cell responses at presentation, with greater frequencies in severe disease. Cytokines, mainly produced by CD4+ T cells, targeted all structural proteins (nucleocapsid, membrane, and spike) except envelope, with GzmB and IL-2 greater than IFN-γ. Mathematical modeling predicted that (i) cytokine responses peaked at 6 days for IFN-γ, 36 days for IL-2, and 7 days for GzmB, (ii) severe illness was associated with reduced IFN-γ and GzmB but increased IL-2 production rates, and (iii) males displayed greater production of IFN-γ, whereas females produced more GzmB. Ex vivo responses declined over time, with persistence of IL-2 in 86% and of IFN-γ and GzmB in 70% of subjects at a median of 336 days PSO. The average half-life of SARS-CoV-2-specific cytokine-producing cells was modeled to be 139 days (~4.6 months). Potent T cell proliferative responses persisted throughout observation, were CD4 dominant, and were capable of producing all 3 cytokines. Several immunodominant CD4 and CD8 epitopes identified in this study were shared by seasonal coronaviruses or SARS-CoV-1 in the nucleocapsid and membrane regions. Both SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell clones were able to kill target cells, though CD8 tended to be more potent. IMPORTANCE Our findings highlight the relative importance of SARS-CoV-2-specific GzmB-producing T cell responses in SARS-CoV-2 control and shared CD4 and CD8 immunodominant epitopes in seasonal coronaviruses or SARS-CoV-1, and they indicate robust persistence of T cell memory at least 1 year after infection. Our findings should inform future strategies to induce T cell vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses.

Hepatitis C virus-specific immune responses following direct-acting antivirals administered during recent hepatitis C virus infection.

Individuals who spontaneously clear hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection have demonstrated evidence of partial protective immunity, whereas treatment-induced clearance provides little or no protection against reinfection. We aimed to investigate whether treatment of acute HCV infection with direct-acting antivirals (DAA) prevents establishment of, or reverses, T-cell exhaustion, leading to a virus-specific T-cell immune profile more similar to that seen in spontaneous clearance. The magnitude and breadth of HCV-specific T-cell responses before and after DAA or interferon-based therapy in acute or chronic HCV were compared to those of participants with spontaneous clearance of infection, using Enzyme-linked Immunospot (ELISPOT). PBMCs were available for 55 patients comprising 4 groups: spontaneous clearance (n = 17), acute interferon (n = 14), acute DAA (n = 13) and chronic DAA (n = 11). After controlling for sex, the magnitude of post-treatment HCV-specific responses after acute DAA treatment was greater than after chronic DAA or acute IFN treatment and similar to those found in spontaneous clearers. However, spontaneous clearers responded to more HCV peptide pools indicating greater breadth of response. In conclusion, early treatment with DAAs may prevent or reverse some degree of immune exhaustion and result in stronger HCV-specific responses post-treatment. However, individuals with spontaneous clearance had broader HCV-specific responses.

Low-Level Anorectal HIV Shedding despite Effective Antiretroviral Therapy Is Not Driven by Mucosal Inflammation.

Although antiretroviral treatment (ART) suppresses HIV RNA in blood and prevents transmission, low-level anorectal HIV RNA shedding persists in some ART-treated men who have sex with men. We collected anorectal biopsies and swabs from 55 men who have sex with men on effective ART, hypothesizing that anorectal shedding would be linked to microbiota-driven mucosal T cell activation. Lymphocytes were assessed by flow cytometry, soluble immune factors by multiplex immunoassay, neutrophils and epithelial integrity by immunofluorescence microscopy, and the anorectal microbiome by quantitative PCR and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Unexpectedly, we found no evidence that anorectal HIV shedding was associated with the parameters of mucosal inflammation, including T cell activation, inflammatory cytokines, the density of neutrophils, or epithelial integrity. Moreover, the anorectal bacterial load was actually lower in the shedding group, with no major differences in bacterial composition. Instead, the strongest mucosal immune correlates of HIV shedding were an increase in central memory cell frequency and Ki67 expression as well as higher concentrations of the cytokine IL-7 in anorectal secretions. Anorectal HIV RNA shedding during effective ART was not driven by local inflammation; the associations seen with local homeostatic T cell proliferation will require further confirmation.

Secondary infections in critically ill patients with viral pneumonia due to COVID-19 and influenza: a historical cohort study.

PURPOSE: To compare the incidence and nature of secondary infections (SI) between critically ill patients with viral pneumonia due to COVID-19 and seasonal influenza and explore the association between SI and clinical outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a historical cohort study of patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) at two tertiary care centers during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic and patients admitted with influenza during the 2018-2019 season. The primary outcome was the rate of SI. Secondary outcomes included rates of ICU and in-hospital mortality, organ-support-dependent disease, and length of ICU and hospital stay. RESULTS: Secondary infections developed in 55% of 95 COVID-19 patients and 51% of 47 influenza patients (unadjusted odds ratio [OR], 1.16; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.57 to 2.33). After adjusting for baseline differences between cohorts, there were no significant differences between the COVID-19 cohort and the influenza cohort (adjusted OR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.41 to 2.44). COVID-19 patients with SI had longer ICU and hospital stays and duration of mechanical ventilation. The SI incidence was higher in COVID-19 patients treated with steroids than in those not treated with steroids (15/20, 75% vs 37/75, 49%). CONCLUSION: Secondary infections were common among critically ill patients with viral pneumonia including COVID-19. We found no difference in the incidence of SI between COVID-19 and influenza in our cohort study, but SI in patients with COVID-19 were associated with worse clinical outcomes and increased healthcare resource use. The small cohort size precludes any causal inferences but may provide a basis for future research.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: Comparer l'incidence et la nature des infections secondaires entre les patients gravement malades atteints de pneumonie virale due à la COVID-19 et ceux atteints de la grippe saisonnière et explorer l'association entre les infections secondaires et les issues cliniques. MéTHODE: Nous avons réalisé une étude de cohorte historique de patients admis à l'unité de soins intensifs (USI) dans deux centres de soins tertiaires pendant la première vague de la pandémie de COVID-19 et de patients admis pour la grippe au cours de la saison 2018-2019. Le critère d'évaluation principal était le taux d'infections secondaires. Les critères d'évaluation secondaires comprenaient les taux de mortalité à l'USI et à l'hôpital, les maladies nécessitant un support d'organes et la durée du séjour à l'USI et à l'hôpital. RéSULTATS: Des infections secondaires se sont développées chez 55 % des 95 patients atteints de COVID-19 et 51 % des 47 patients grippaux (rapport des cotes [RC] non ajusté, 1,16; intervalle de confiance [IC] à 95 %, 0,57 à 2,33). Après ajustement pour tenir compte des différences initiales entre les cohortes, aucune différence significative n'a été observée entre la cohorte de COVID-19 et la cohorte de grippe (RC ajusté, 1,00; IC 95 %, 0,41 à 2,44). Les patients atteints de COVID-19 atteints d'infections secondaires ont séjourné plus longtemps aux soins intensifs et à l'hôpital et la durée de la ventilation mécanique était plus longue pour ces patients. L'incidence d'infections secondaires était plus élevée chez les patients atteints de COVID-19 traités par stéroïdes que chez ceux non traités par stéroïdes (15/20, 75 % vs 37/75, 49 %). CONCLUSION: Les infections secondaires étaient fréquentes chez les patients gravement malades atteints de pneumonie virale, y compris de COVID-19. Nous n'avons observé aucune différence dans l'incidence d'infections secondaires entre les patients atteints de COVID-19 et ceux atteints de grippe dans notre étude de cohorte, mais les infections secondaires chez les patients atteints de COVID-19 étaient associées à de moins bonnes issues cliniques et à une utilisation accrue des ressources de soins de santé. La petite taille de la cohorte exclut toute inférence causale, mais peut fournir une base pour les recherches futures.

Changes in concentrations of cervicovaginal immune mediators across the menstrual cycle: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data.

BACKGROUND: Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle play a key role in shaping immunity in the cervicovaginal tract. Cervicovaginal fluid contains cytokines, chemokines, immunoglobulins, and other immune mediators. Many studies have shown that the concentrations of these immune mediators change throughout the menstrual cycle, but the studies have often shown inconsistent results. Our understanding of immunological correlates of the menstrual cycle remains limited and could be improved by meta-analysis of the available evidence. METHODS: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of cervicovaginal immune mediator concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle using individual participant data. Study eligibility included strict definitions of the cycle phase (by progesterone or days since the last menstrual period) and no use of hormonal contraception or intrauterine devices. We performed random-effects meta-analyses using inverse-variance pooling to estimate concentration differences between the follicular and luteal phases. In addition, we performed a new laboratory study, measuring select immune mediators in cervicovaginal lavage samples. RESULTS: We screened 1570 abstracts and identified 71 eligible studies. We analyzed data from 31 studies, encompassing 39,589 concentration measurements of 77 immune mediators made on 2112 samples from 871 participants. Meta-analyses were performed on 53 immune mediators. Antibodies, CC-type chemokines, MMPs, IL-6, IL-16, IL-1RA, G-CSF, GNLY, and ICAM1 were lower in the luteal phase than the follicular phase. Only IL-1α, HBD-2, and HBD-3 were elevated in the luteal phase. There was minimal change between the phases for CXCL8, 9, and 10, interferons, TNF, SLPI, elafin, lysozyme, lactoferrin, and interleukins 1ß, 2, 10, 12, 13, and 17A. The GRADE strength of evidence was moderate to high for all immune mediators listed here. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the variability of cervicovaginal immune mediator measurements, our meta-analyses show clear and consistent changes during the menstrual cycle. Many immune mediators were lower in the luteal phase, including chemokines, antibodies, matrix metalloproteinases, and several interleukins. Only interleukin-1α and beta-defensins were higher in the luteal phase. These cyclical differences may have consequences for immunity, susceptibility to infection, and fertility. Our study emphasizes the need to control for the effect of the menstrual cycle on immune mediators in future studies.

17BIPHE2, an engineered cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide with low susceptibility to proteases, is an effective spermicide and microbicide against Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

STUDY QUESTION: Is 17BIPHE2, an engineered cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide with low susceptibility to proteases, a better spermicide in cervicovaginal fluid (CVF) than its parental peptides, LL-37 and GF-17? SUMMARY ANSWER: At the same mass concentration, 17BIPHE2 exhibited the highest spermicidal activity on human sperm resuspended in CVF-containing medium. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: LL-37 and its truncated peptide GF-17 exert both spermicidal and microbicidal activities, although they are prone to proteolytic degradation in body fluids. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: Spermicidal activities of 17BIPHE2 were evaluated in vitro in mouse and human sperm, both resuspended in medium, and then on human sperm incubated in CVF-containing medium; in the latter condition, the spermicidal activity and peptide stability in CVF of 17BIPHE2 were compared with that of LL-37 and GF-17. The in vivo contraceptive effects of 17BIPHE2 and the reversibility thereof were then assessed in mice. Finally, in vitro microbicidal effects of 17BIPHE2 on Neisseria gonorrhoeae were determined. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Sperm motility and plasma membrane integrity were assessed by videomicroscopy and exclusion of Sytox Green, a membrane-impermeable fluorescent dye, respectively. Successful in vitro fertilization (IVF) was determined by the presence of two pronuclei in oocytes following their coincubation with capacitated untreated or 17BIPHE2-treated sperm. Sperm alone or with 17BIPHE2 were transcervically injected into female mice and successful in vivo fertilization was indicated by the formation of two-cell embryos 42-h postinjection, and by pregnancy through pup delivery 21-25 days afterwards. Peptide intactness was assessed by immunoblotting and HPLC. Reversibility of the contraceptive effects of 17BIPHE2 was evaluated by resumption of pregnancy of the female mice, pretranscervically injected with 17BIPHE2, following natural mating with fertile males. Minimum inhibitory/bactericidal concentrations of 17BIPHE2 on N. gonorrhoeae were obtained through microdilution broth assay. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: At the same mass concentration, 17BIPHE2 was a more effective spermicide than LL-37 or GF-17 on human sperm resuspended in CVF-containing medium, with the spermicidal concentration of 32.4 µM. This was mainly due to lower susceptibility of 17BIPHE2 to CVF proteases. Importantly, the reproductive tract of mouse females treated three times with 32.4 µM 17BIPHE2 remained normal and their fecundity resumed after stopping 17BIPHE2 treatment. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: For ethical reasons, the inhibitory effects of 17BIPHE2 on fertilization and pregnancy cannot presently be performed in women. Also, while our study has proven the effectiveness of 17BIPHE2 as a spermicide for mouse and human sperm in vitro, dosage formulation (e.g. in hydrogel) of 17BIPHE2 still needs to be developed to allow 17BIPHE2 to remain in the vagina/uterine cavity with controlled release for its spermicidal action. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Since 17BIPHE2 also exerted bactericidal activity against N. gonorrhoeae at its spermicidal concentration, it is a promising candidate to be developed into a vaginal multipurpose prevention technology agent, thus empowering women against unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (PJT 173268 to N.T.). There are no competing interests to declare. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: N/A.

How Does Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision Reduce HIV Risk?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) is a surgical procedure that reduces HIV acquisition risk by almost two-thirds. However, global implementation is lagging, in part due to VMMC hesitancy. A better understanding of the mechanism(s) by which this procedure protects against HIV may increase acceptance of VMMC as an HIV risk reduction approach among health care providers and their clients. RECENT FINDINGS: HIV acquisition in the uncircumcised penis occurs preferentially across the inner foreskin tissues, due to increased susceptibility that is linked to elevated inflammatory cytokine levels in the sub-preputial space and an increased tissue density of HIV-susceptible CD4 + T cells. Inflammation can be caused by sexually transmitted infections, but is more commonly induced by specific anaerobic components of the penile microbiome. Circumcision protects by both directly removing the susceptible tissues of the inner foreskin, and by inducing a less inflammatory residual penile microbiome. VMMC reduces HIV susceptibility by removing susceptible penile tissues, and also through impacts on the penile immune and microbial milieu. Understanding these mechanisms may not only increase VMMC acceptability and reinvigorate global VMMC programs, but may also lead to non-surgical HIV prevention approaches focused on penile immunology and/or microbiota.

The positive impact of a telemedicine education program on healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Canada.

Context The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on health care service and delivery has been profound. In addition to shifting and expanding clinical responsibilities, rapidly evolving information and guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic has made it difficult for healthcare workers (HCWs) to synthesize and translate COVID-19 information into practice. Objective The objectives of this study are 1) to examine the impact of a telemedicine education program on HCW's self-efficacy and satisfaction and 2) to explore HCWs' experience in the program and context of practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. Study Design We conducted a prospective mixed methods parallel-design study among ECHO COVID participants using pre-post questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGDs). We examined questionnaire results for changes in HCWs' self-efficacy and satisfaction. We analyzed FGD data to explore HCWs' experience in ECHO and the context of their practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. Setting Project Extension for Community Healthcare Outcomes (ECHO) model is a virtual, telemedicine education model that provides longitudinal support and addresses the emerging needs of HCWs. "ECHO Ontario: Managing COVID-19 Patients in the Community" (ECHO) was launched in July 2020. The goal of the program was to disseminate best practices regarding COVID-19 as they emerged and to increase HCW confidence and knowledge of COVID-19. Population Studied The study population were practicing HCWs in the province of Ontario, Canada. 1) HCW self-efficacy 2) HCW satisfaction Results Of 299 HCWs registered in ECHO COVID, 114 (38.1%) participated in this analysis. Median self-efficacy scores increased from 5 (IQR 4 - 6) to 6 (IQR 6 - 6) (p < 0.0001), independent of profession, years in practice, age group, or type of practice environment. Participants were highly satisfied with the ECHO sessions with a median score of 4 (IQR 4 - 5). FGD data indicated that HCWs gained knowledge through ECHO, established the context of their practice, and revealed facilitators for ECHO program success, including the transition to virtual care, the practicability of knowledge provided, and a "perspective from the trenches." Conclusions This study demonstrated that a telemedicine education program aimed to support HCWs in managing patients with COVID-19 had a positive impact on self-efficacy and satisfaction, and that this impact was specifically mediated through the ECHO program.

Mental health challenges and perceived risks among female sex Workers in Nairobi, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Female sex workers (FSWs) in Kenya are at an increased risk of violence, poverty, police arrest, and problematic alcohol and other substance use, all of which are linked to poor mental health and suicidal ideation. Despite the psychological stressors experienced by FSWs, there is no published qualitative methods research investigating their mental health experiences in Kenya. In this paper, we draw on data from in-depth interviews to examine FSWs' lifetime mental health experiences and perceived risk factors. METHODS: We used baseline in-depth interviews of the Maisha Fiti longitudinal study of FSWs in Nairobi. We randomly selected 40 FSWs from 1003 FSWs who attended a baseline behavioural-biological interview as part of the Maisha Fiti study. The interview guide was semi-structured, and participants were asked to detail their life stories, including narrating specific events such as entry into sex work, experiences of violence, mental health experiences, and use of alcohol and other substances. Interviews were recorded in Kiswahili/ English and transcribed in English. Data were coded and thematically analysed in Nvivo (v.12). RESULTS: Results indicated that the majority of participants understood 'mental health' as 'insanity', 'stress', 'depression', and 'suicide'; nevertheless, a number described mental health symptomatically, while a few believed that mental health problems were caused by witchcraft. Interestingly, poverty, low levels of education, poor job opportunities, a lack of family support, harmful gender norms, intimate partner violence and subsequent relationship breakdowns, and family bereavement all contributed to poor mental health and subsequent entry into sex work. In addition, the consequences of sex work such as sexual risks, and ongoing violence from police and clients, further exacerbated poor mental health. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for both micro- and macro interventions to address poverty and violence against FSWs in Kenya, thereby reducing mental health problems. Addressing violence against women and girls may also reduce entry into sex work. Improving mental health literacy and providing mental health intervention services for 'at-risk' populations such as FSWs should enhance coping strategies and help-seeking efficacy.

Beaten but not down! Exploring resilience among female sex workers (FSWs) in Nairobi, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: In Kenya sex work is illegal and those engaged in the trade are stigmatized and marginalized. We explored how female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya, utilize different resources to navigate the negative consequences of the work they do. METHODS: Qualitative data were collected in October 2019 from 40 FSWs who were randomly sampled from 1003 women enrolled in the Maisha Fiti study, a 3-year longitudinal mixed-methods study exploring the relationship between HIV risk and violence and mental health. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and translated. Data were thematically coded and analyzed using Nvivo 12. RESULTS: Participants' age range was 18-45 years. Before entry into sex work, all but one had at least one child. Providing for the children was expressed as the main reason the women joined sex work. All the women grew up in adverse circumstances such as poor financial backgrounds and some reported sexual and physical abuse as children. They also continued to experience adversity in their adulthood including intimate partner violence as well as violence at the workplace. All the participants were noted to have utilised the resources they have to build resilience and cope with these adversities while remaining hopeful for the future. Motherhood was mentioned by most as the reason they have remained resilient. Coming together in groups and engaging with HIV prevention and treatment services were noted as important factors too in building resilience. CONCLUSION: Despite the adverse experiences throughout the lives of FSWs, resilience was a key theme that emerged from this study. A holistic approach is needed in addressing the health needs of female sex workers. Encouraging FSWs to come together and advocating together for their needs is a key resource from which resilience and forbearance can grow. Upstream prevention through strengthening of education systems and supporting girls to stay in school and complete their secondary and/or tertiary education would help them gain training and skills, providing them with options for income generation during their adult lives.

HIV RNA Rebound in Seminal Plasma after Antiretroviral Treatment Interruption.

If strategies currently in development succeed in eradicating HIV reservoirs in peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues, residual sources of virus may remain in anatomic compartments. Paired blood and semen samples were collected from 12 individuals enrolled in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled therapeutic vaccine clinical trial in people with HIV (PWH) who began antiretroviral therapy (ART) during acute or early infection (ClinicalTrials registration no. NCT01859325). After the week 56 visit (postintervention), all participants interrupted ART. At the first available time points after viral rebound, we sequenced HIV-1 env (C2-V3), gag (p24), and pol (reverse transcriptase) regions amplified from cell-free HIV RNA in blood and seminal plasma using the MiSeq Illumina platform. Comprehensive sequence and phylogenetic analyses were performed to evaluate viral population structure, compartmentalization, and viral diversity in blood and seminal plasma. Compared to that in blood, HIV RNA rebound in semen occurred significantly later (median of 66 versus 42 days post-ART interruption, P < 0.01) and reached lower levels (median 164 versus 16,090 copies/ml, P < 0.01). Three of five participants with available sequencing data presented compartmentalized viral rebound between blood and semen in one HIV coding region. Despite early ART initiation, HIV RNA molecular diversity was higher in semen than in blood in all three coding regions for most participants. Higher HIV RNA molecular diversity in the genital tract (compared to that in blood plasma) and evidence of compartmentalization illustrate the distinct evolutionary dynamics between these two compartments after ART interruption. Future research should evaluate whether the genital compartment might contribute to viral rebound in some PWH interrupting ART.IMPORTANCE To cure HIV, we likely need to target the reservoirs in all anatomic compartments. Here, we used sophisticated statistical and phylogenetic methods to analyze blood and semen samples collected from 12 persons with HIV who began antiretroviral therapy (ART) during very early HIV infection and who interrupted their ART as part of a clinical trial. First, we found that HIV RNA rebound in semen occurred significantly later and reached lower levels than in blood. Second, we found that the virus in semen was genetically different in some participants compared to that in blood. Finally, we found increased HIV RNA molecular diversity in semen compared to that in blood in almost all study participants. These data suggest that the HIV RNA populations emerging from the genital compartment after ART interruption might not be the same as those emerging from blood plasma. Future research should evaluate whether the genital compartment might contribute to viral rebound in some people with HIV (PWH) interrupting ART.

Prevalence and correlates of common mental health problems and recent suicidal thoughts and behaviours among female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), poverty, violence and harmful alcohol/substance use are associated with poor mental health outcomes, but few studies have examined these risks among Female Sex Workers (FSWs). We examine the prevalence and correlates of common mental health problems including suicidal thoughts and behaviours among FSWs in Kenya. METHODS: Maisha Fiti is a longitudinal study among FSWs randomly selected from Sex Worker Outreach Programme (SWOP) clinics across Nairobi. Baseline behavioural-biological survey (n = 1003) data were collected June-December 2019. Mental health problems were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) for depression, the Generalised Anxiety Disorder tool (GAD-7) for anxiety, the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ-17) for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and a two-item tool to measure recent suicidal thoughts/behaviours. Other measurement tools included the WHO Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) score, WHO Violence Against Women questionnaire, and the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression were conducted using a hierarchical modelling approach. RESULTS: Of 1039 eligible FSWs, 1003 FSWs participated in the study (response rate: 96%) with mean age 33.7 years. The prevalence of moderate/severe depression was 23.2%, moderate/severe anxiety 11.0%, PTSD 14.0% and recent suicidal thoughts/behaviours 10.2% (2.6% suicide attempt, 10.0% suicidal thoughts). Depression, anxiety, PTSD and recent suicidal thoughts/behaviours were all independently associated with higher ACE scores, recent hunger (missed a meal in last week due to financial difficulties), recent sexual/physical violence and increased harmful alcohol/substance. PTSD was additionally associated with increased chlamydia prevalence and recent suicidal thoughts/behaviours with low education and low socio-economic status. Mental health problems were less prevalent among women reporting social support. CONCLUSIONS: The high burden of mental health problems indicates a need for accessible services tailored for FSWs alongside structural interventions addressing poverty, harmful alcohol/substance use and violence. Given the high rates of ACEs, early childhood and family interventions should be considered to prevent poor mental health outcomes.

Anal dysplasia and HIV shedding in ART-treated men.

OBJECTIVES: Anal human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is highly prevalent among men who have sex with men (MSM). HPV-associated anal dysplasia has been linked with anal HIV RNA shedding despite antiretroviral therapy (ART). Since mucosal HIV levels are a key determinant of sexual transmission of the virus, this would have important public health implications. Therefore, we assessed the association between anal dysplasia and HIV shedding in ART-treated MSM from Toronto, Canada. METHODS: In 54 HIV-infected men on effective ART, we assessed anal HIV RNA shedding by PCR, HPV infection by microsphere-based genotyping and anal dysplasia by high-resolution anoscopy. All participants were enrolled between May 2017 and October 2018. RESULTS: The median duration of ART at the time of study enrolment was 18 years, with most participants being on an integrase inhibitor-based ART regimen. Low-level anal HIV RNA shedding was present in 15/54 (27.8%) participants. Neither the detection of shedding nor the level of HIV RNA was associated with anal dysplasia, HPV infection or antiretroviral regimen. CONCLUSIONS: HPV-associated anal dysplasia was not associated with anal HIV RNA shedding in this relatively small cohort of men on effective ART. While anal HIV RNA was detected more often than anticipated, shedding was low level and unlikely to cause HIV transmission. However, the immunological drivers of anal HIV RNA shedding in ART-treated individuals may merit further study.

Impact of Standard Bacterial Vaginosis Treatment on the Genital Microbiota, Immune Milieu, and Ex Vivo Human Immunodeficiency Virus Susceptibility.

BACKGROUND: Genital immunology is a key determinant of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) susceptibility. Both factors are modulated by bacterial vaginosis (BV) and, to some extent, by Lactobacillus iners, the genital Lactobacillus spp. that predominates in African, Caribbean, and other Black (ACB) women. We conducted a clinical trial to assess the impact of oral metronidazole treatment on the genital immune parameters of HIV acquisition risks in Kenyan women with BV. METHODS: The primary endpoint was ex vivo cervical CD4+ T-cell HIV susceptibility after 1 month; secondary endpoints included genital cytokine/chemokine levels, cervical immune cell populations, and the composition of the cervico-vaginal microbiota by 16S ribosomal RNA gene amplicon sequencing. RESULTS: BV resolved (Nugent score ≤ 3) at 1 month in 20/45 participants, and cervical CD4+ T-cell HIV entry was moderately reduced in all participants, regardless of treatment outcome. Resolution of BV and reduced abundances of BV-associated gram-negative taxa correlated with reduced genital interleukin (IL)-1α/ß. However, BV resolution and the concomitant colonization by Lactobacillus iners substantially increased several genital chemokines associated with HIV acquisition, including interferon-γ inducible protein (IP)-10, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-3α, and monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG). In an independent cohort of ACB women, most of whom were BV-free, vaginal chemokines were again closely linked with L. iners abundance, though not other Lactobacillus spp. CONCLUSIONS: BV treatment reduced genital CD4+ T-cell HIV susceptibility and IL-1 levels, but dramatically increased the genital chemokines that may enhance HIV susceptibility; the latter effect was related to the restoration of an Lactobacillus iners-dominated microbiota. Further studies are needed before treatment of asymptomatic BV can be recommended for HIV prevention in ACB communities.

The epidemiology of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in African, Caribbean and Black men in Toronto, Canada.

BACKGROUND: African, Caribbean, and Black (Black) men account for 16.5% of new HIV diagnoses among men in Ontario. There is substantial evidence that sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are associated with increased likelihood of HIV infection; however, little is known regarding the prevalence of HIV/STI co-infections among Black men in Toronto. Progress has been made in understanding factors contributing to racial/ethnic disparities in HIV between among men who have sex with men (MSM). In this study, we investigate within-racial group patterns of HIV/STI infection between Black MSM and Black men who only have sex with women (MSW). METHODS: A cross-sectional descriptive epidemiological study was conducted with a non-probability sample of Black men recruited from Toronto, Ontario. Audio Computer Assisted Self-Interviews (ACASI) surveys were used to collect demographic and behavioral data. Biological specimens were collected to screen for HIV and other STIs. Chi-Square tests were used to compare the prevalence of (1) HIV and current STIs between MSM and MSW and (2) current STIs between people living with HIV and people not living with HIV. Logistic regression models were constructed to assess whether or not history of STIs were associated with current HIV infection. RESULTS: The prevalence of HIV (9.2%), syphilis (7.2%), hepatitis B (2.7%), and high-risk anal HPV (8.4%) and penile HPV (21.3%) infections were high in Black men (N = 487) and were significantly increased in Black MSM compared with MSW; the prevalence of syphilis and high-risk HPV were also increased in men living with HIV. Men with a history of syphilis (OR = 6.48, 95% CI: 2.68,15.71), genital warts (OR = 4.32, 95% CI: 1.79,10.43) or genital ulcers (OR = 21.3, 95% CI: 1.89,239.51) had an increased odds of HIV infection. CONCLUSIONS: The HIV/STI prevalence was high among this sample of Black men, although the study design may have led to oversampling of men living with HIV. The associations between STIs and current HIV infection highlight the need for integrated of HIV/STI screening and treatment programs for Black men. Public health strategies are also needed to reduce disproportionate HIV/STI burden among Black MSM-including improving HPV vaccine coverage.