A novel model for IFN-γ-mediated autoinflammatory syndromes.

Autoinflammatory disease and hyperinflammatory syndromes represent a growing number of diseases associated with inappropriately controlled inflammation in multiple organs. Systemic inflammation commonly results from dysregulated activation of innate immune cells, and therapeutic targeting of the IL-1ß pathway has been used to ameliorate some of these diseases. Some hyperinflammatory syndromes, however, such as hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and the newly classified proteasome disability syndromes, are refractory to such treatments, suggesting that other factors or environmental stressors may be contributing. In comparing two cytokine reporter mouse strains, we identify IFN-γ as a mediator of systemic autoinflammatory disease. Chronically elevated levels of IFN-γ resulted in progressive multiorgan inflammation and two copies of the mutant allele resulted in increased mortality accompanied by myeloproliferative disease. Disease was alleviated by genetic deletion of T-bet. These studies raise the possibility that therapeutics targeting the IFN-γ pathway might be effective in hyperinflammatory conditions refractory to IL-1ß-targeted therapies.

LACK, a RACK1 ortholog, facilitates cytochrome c oxidase subunit expression to promote Leishmania major fitness.

Leishmania are kinetoplastid parasites that cause the sandfly-transmitted disease leishmaniasis. To maintain fitness throughout their infectious life cycle, Leishmania must undergo rapid metabolic adaptations to the dramatically distinct environments encountered during transition between sandfly and vertebrate hosts. We performed proteomic and immunoblot analyses of attenuated L. major strains deficient for LACK, the Leishmania ortholog of the mammalian receptor for activated c kinase (RACK1), that is important for parasite thermotolerance and virulence. This approach identified cytochrome c oxidase (LmCOX) subunit IV as a LACK-dependent fitness protein. Consistent with decreased levels of LmCOX subunit IV at mammalian temperature, and in amastigotes, LmCOX activity and mitochondrial function were also impaired in LACK-deficient L. major under these conditions. Importantly, overexpression of LmCOX subunit IV in LACK-deficient L. major restored thermotolerance and macrophage infectivity. Interestingly, overexpression of LmCOX subunit IV enhanced LmCOX subunit VI expression at mammalian temperature. Collectively, our data suggest LACK promotes Leishmania adaptation to the mammalian host environment by sustaining LmCOX subunit IV expression and hence energy metabolism in response to stress stimuli such as heat. These findings extend the repertoire of RACK1 protein utility to include a role in mitochondrial function.

Transgenic overexpression of heat shock protein (HSP83) enhances protein kinase A activity, disrupts GP63 surface protease expression and alters promastigote morphology in Leishmania amazonensis.

Leishmania parasites undergo morphological changes during their infectious life cycle, including developmental transitions within the sandfly vector, culminating in metacyclic stages that are pre-adapted for infection. Upon entering vertebrate host phagocytes, Leishmania differentiate into intracellular amastigotes, the form that is ultimately transmitted back to the vector to complete the life cycle. Although environmental conditions that induce these cellular transitions are well-established, molecular mechanisms governing Leishmania morphologic differentiation in response to these cues remain largely uncharacterized. Previous studies indicate a key role for HSP83 in both promastigote metacyclogenesis and amastigote differentiation. To further elucidate HSP83 functions in the Leishmania lifecycle, we examined the biological impact of experimentally elevating HSP83 gene expression in Leishmania. Significantly, HSP83 overexpression was associated with altered metacyclic morphology, increased protein kinase A (PKA) activity and decreased expression of the Leishmania major surface protease, GP63. Corroborating these findings, overexpression of the L. amazonensis PKA catalytic subunit resulted in a largely similar phenotype. Our findings demonstrate for the first time in Leishmania, a functional link between HSP83 and PKA in the control of Leishmania gene expression, replication and morphogenesis.

The oligopeptidase B of Leishmania regulates parasite enolase and immune evasion.

Proteases are a ubiquitous group of enzymes that play key roles in the life cycle of parasites, in the host-parasite relationship, and in the pathogenesis of parasitic diseases. Furthermore, proteases are targets for the development of new anti-parasitic therapy. Protozoan parasites like Leishmania predominantly express Clan CA cysteine proteases for key life cycle functions. It was therefore unexpected to find a high level of serine protease activity expressed by Leishmania donovani. Purification of this activity followed by mass spectrometry identified oligopeptidase B (OPB; Clan SC, family S9A) as the responsible enzyme. This was confirmed by gene knock-out of OPB, which resulted in the disappearance of the detected serine protease activity of Leishmania extracts. To delineate the specific role of OPB in parasite physiology, proteomic analysis was carried out on OPB(-/-) versus wild type parasites. Four protein species were significantly elevated in OPB(-/-) parasites, and all four were identified by mass spectrometry as enolase. This increased enolase was enzymatically inactive and associated with the parasite membrane. Aside from its classic role in carbohydrate metabolism, enolase was recently found to localize to membranes, where it binds host plasminogen and functions as a virulence factor for several pathogens. As expected, there was a striking alteration in macrophage responses to Leishmania when OPB was deleted. Whereas wild type parasites elicited little, if any, response from infected macrophages, OPB(-/-) parasites induced a massive up-regulation in gene transcription. Additionally, these OPB(-/-) parasites displayed decreased virulence in the murine footpad infection model.

Leishmania subtilisin is a maturase for the trypanothione reductase system and contributes to disease pathology.

Proteases are a ubiquitous group of enzymes that play key roles in the life cycle of parasites, in the host-parasite relationship, and in the pathogenesis of parasitic diseases. Furthermore, proteases are druggable targets for the development of new anti-parasitic therapy. The subtilisin protease (SUB; Clan SB, family S8) of Leishmania donovani was cloned and found to possess a unique catalytic triad. This gene was then deleted by gene knock-out, which resulted in reduced ability by the parasite to undergo promastigote to amastigote differentiation in vitro. Electron microscopy of SUB knock-out amastigotes revealed abnormal membrane structures, retained flagella, and increased binucleation. SUB-deficient Leishmania displayed reduced virulence in both hamster and murine infection models. Histology of spleens from SUB knock-out-infected hamsters revealed the absence of psammoma body calcifications indicative of the granulomatous lesions that occur during Leishmania infection. To delineate the specific role of SUB in parasite physiology, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis was carried out on SUB(-/-) versus wild-type parasites. SUB knock-out parasites showed altered regulation of the terminal peroxidases of the trypanothione reductase system. Leishmania and other trypanosomatids lack glutathione reductase, and therefore rely on the novel trypanothione reductase system to detoxify reactive oxygen intermediates and to maintain redox homeostasis. The predominant tryparedoxin peroxidases were decreased in SUB(-/-) parasites, and higher molecular weight isoforms were present, indicating altered processing. In addition, knock-out parasites showed increased sensitivity to hydroperoxide. These data suggest that subtilisin is the maturase for tryparedoxin peroxidases and is necessary for full virulence.

Dynamic modulation of Leishmania cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV (LmCOX4) expression in response to mammalian temperature.

The Leishmania LACK antigen is a ribosome-associated protein that facilitates expression of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV (LmCOX4) to support parasite mitochondrial fitness and virulence within the vertebrate host. To further examine the relationship between LACK, its putative ribosome binding motif and LmCOX4, we compared the kinetics of LmCOX4 expression following temperature elevation in wildtype LACK (LACK WT) and LACK-putative ribosome-binding mutant (LACKDDE) L. major. We found that, after initial exposure to mammalian temperature, LmCOX4 levels became undetectable in LACKDDE L. major and also, surprisingly, in wild type (WT) control strains. Upon sustained exposure to mammalian temperature, LmCOX4 expression returned in WT control strains only. The initial loss of LmCOX4 in WT L. major was substantially reversed by treatment with the proteasome inhibitor MG132. Our findings indicate that initial loss of LmCOX4 under mammalian conditions is dependent upon proteasome degradation and LmCOX4 re-expression is dependent upon LACK possessing a WT putative ribosome binding motif.

Leishmania major LACK antigen is required for efficient vertebrate parasitization.

The Leishmania major LACK antigen is a key target of the immune response in susceptible BALB/c mice and remains a viable vaccine candidate for human leishmaniasis. We describe the genomic organization of the four lack genes in the L. major diploid genome together with results of selected lack gene targeting. Parasites containing a single lack gene in either the upstream or downstream locus grew comparably to wild-type promastigotes in vitro, but failed to parasitize BALB/c mice efficiently, even in a T cell-deficient environment. The replication of single copy lack mutants as amastigotes was attenuated in macrophages in vitro, and parasites failed to increase in numbers in immunodeficient mice, despite their persistence over months. Complementation with an additional lack copy was sufficient to induce robust lesion development, which also occurred using parasites with two lack genes. Conversely, attempts to generate lack-null parasites failed, suggesting that LACK is required for parasite viability. These data suggest that LACK is critical for effective mammalian parasitization and thus represents a potential drug target for leishmaniasis.

Disruption of the Putative Ribosome-Binding Motif of a Scaffold Protein Impairs Cytochrome c Oxidase Subunit Expression in Leishmania major.

During their parasitic life cycle, through sandflies and vertebrate hosts, Leishmania parasites confront strikingly different environments, including abrupt changes in pH and temperature, to which they must rapidly adapt. These adaptations include alterations in Leishmania gene expression, metabolism, and morphology, allowing them to thrive as promastigotes in the sandfly and as intracellular amastigotes in the vertebrate host. A critical aspect of Leishmania metabolic adaptation to these changes is maintenance of efficient mitochondrial function in the hostile vertebrate environment. Such functions, including generation of ATP, depend upon the expression of many mitochondrial proteins, including subunits of cytochrome c oxidase (COX). Significantly, under mammalian temperature conditions, expression of Leishmania major COX subunit IV (LmCOX4) and virulence are dependent upon two copies of LACK, a gene that encodes the ribosome-associated scaffold protein, LACK (Leishmania ortholog of RACK1 [receptor for activated C kinase]). Targeted replacement of an endogenous LACK copy with a putative ribosome-binding motif-disrupted variant (LACKR34D35G36→LACKD34D35E36) resulted in thermosensitive parasites that showed diminished LmCOX4 expression, mitochondrial fitness, and replication in macrophages. Surprisingly, despite these phenotypes, LACKD34D35E36 associated with monosomes and polysomes and showed no major impairment of global protein synthesis. Collectively, these data suggest that wild-type (WT) LACK orchestrates robust LmCOX4 expression and mitochondrial fitness to ensure parasite virulence, via optimized functional interactions with the ribosome.IMPORTANCELeishmania parasites are trypanosomatid protozoans that persist in infected human hosts to cause a spectrum of pathologies, from cutaneous and mucocutaneous manifestations to visceral leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania donovani The latter is usually fatal if not treated. Persistence of L. major in the mammalian host depends upon maintaining gene-regulatory programs to support essential parasite metabolic functions. These include expression and assembly of mitochondrial L. major cytochrome c oxidase (LmCOX) subunits, important for Leishmania ATP production. Significantly, under mammalian conditions, WT levels of LmCOX subunits require threshold levels of the Leishmania ribosome-associated scaffold protein, LACK. Unexpectedly, we find that although disruption of LACK's putative ribosome-binding motif does not grossly perturb ribosome association or global protein synthesis, it nonetheless impairs COX subunit expression, mitochondrial function, and virulence. Our data indicate that the quality of LACK's interaction with Leishmania ribosomes is critical for LmCOX subunit expression and parasite mitochondrial function in the mammalian host. Collectively, these findings validate LACK's ribosomal interactions as a potential therapeutic target.

Targeted gene deletion in Leishmania major identifies leishmanolysin (GP63) as a virulence factor.

Leishmanolysin, the Leishmania surface metalloproteinase of 63 kDa (GP63) has been described as a parasite virulence factor and is involved in the direct interaction of promastigotes and host macrophage receptors and interaction with the complement cascade. To study the role of leishmanolysin in the pathogenesis and virulence of Leishmania major, targeted gene replacement was used to delete the entire 20 kb region containing all seven leishmanolysin genes (gp63 genes 1-7). The resulting L. major leishmanolysin deficient mutants showed normal development inside the sand fly vector, however, promastigotes recovered from sand flies or from culture showed an increase in sensitivity to complement-mediated lysis and a delay in lesion formation in BALB/c animals. The phenotypic differences could be significantly improved by expression of a cloned leishmanolysin gene. These results demonstrate that leishmanolysin is a vital virulence factor in Leishmania pathogenesis.

Molecular and cellular characterization of an AT-hook protein from Leishmania.

AT-rich DNA, and the proteins that bind it (AT-hook proteins), modulate chromosome structure and function in most eukaryotes. Unlike other trypanosomatids, the genome of Leishmania species is unusually GC-rich, and the regulation of Leishmania chromosome structure, replication, partitioning is not fully understood. Because AT-hook proteins modulate these functions in other eukaryotes, we examined whether AT-hook proteins are encoded in the Leishmania genome, to test their potential functions. Several Leishmania ORFs predicted to be AT-hook proteins were identified using in silico approaches based on sequences shared between eukaryotic AT-hook proteins. We have used biochemical, molecular and cellular techniques to characterize the L. amazonensis ortholog of the L. major protein LmjF06.0720, a potential AT-hook protein that is highly conserved in Leishmania species. Using a novel fusion between the AT-hook domain encoded by LmjF06.0720 and a herpesviral protein, we have demonstrated that LmjF06.0720 functions as an AT-hook protein in mammalian cells. Further, as observed for mammalian and viral AT-hook proteins, the AT-hook domains of LmjF06.0720 bind specific regions of condensed mammalian metaphase chromosomes, and support the licensed replication of DNA in mammalian cells. LmjF06.0720 is nuclear in Leishmania, and this localization is disrupted upon exposure to drugs that displace AT-hook proteins from AT-rich DNA. Coincidentally, these drugs dramatically alter the cellular physiology of Leishmania promastigotes. Finally, we have devised a novel peptido-mimetic agent derived from the sequence of LmjF06.0720 that blocks the proliferation of Leishmania promastigotes, and lowers amastigote parasitic burden in infected macrophages. Our results indicate that AT-hook proteins are critical for the normal biology of Leishmania. In addition, we have described a simple technique to examine the function of Leishmania chromatin-binding proteins in a eukaryotic context amenable to studying chromosome structure and function. Lastly, we demonstrate the therapeutic potential of compounds directed against AT-hook proteins in Leishmania.

Trypanosomatid RACK1 orthologs show functional differences associated with translation despite similar roles in Leishmania pathogenesis.

RACK1 proteins belong to the eukaryote WD40-repeat protein family and function as spatial regulators of multiple cellular events, including signaling pathways, the cell cycle and translation. For this latter role, structural and genetic studies indicate that RACK1 associates with the ribosome through two conserved positively charged amino acids in its first WD40 domain. Unlike RACK1s, including Trypanosoma brucei RACK1 (TbRACK1), only one of these two positively-charged residues is conserved in the first WD40 domain of the Leishmania major RACK1 ortholog, LACK. We compared virulence-attenuated LACK single copy (LACK/-) L. major, with L. major expressing either two LACK copies (LACK/LACK), or one copy each of LACK and TbRACK1 (LACK/TbRACK1), to evaluate the function of these structurally distinct RACK1 orthologs with respect to translation, viability at host temperatures and pathogenesis. Our results indicate that although the ribosome-binding residues are not fully conserved in LACK, both LACK and TbRACK1 co-sedimented with monosomes and polysomes in LACK/LACK and LACK/TbRACK1 L. major, respectively. LACK/LACK and LACK/TbRACK1 strains differed in their sensitivity to translation inhibitors implying that minor sequence differences between the RACK1 proteins can alter their functional properties. While biochemically distinguishable, both LACK/LACK and LACK/TbRACK1 lines were more tolerant of elevated temperatures, resistant to translation inhibitors, and displayed robust pathogenesis in vivo, contrasting to LACK/- parasites.

Suppression of LPS-induced inflammatory responses in macrophages infected with Leishmania.

BACKGROUND: Chronic inflammation activated by macrophage innate pathogen recognition receptors such as TLR4 can lead to a range of inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis, Crohn's disease, arthritis and cancer. Unlike many microbes, the kinetoplastid protozoan pathogen Leishmania has been shown to avoid and even actively suppress host inflammatory cytokine responses, such as LPS-induced IL-12 production. The nature and scope of Leishmania-mediated inflammatory cytokine suppression, however, is not well characterized. Advancing our knowledge of such microbe-mediated cytokine suppression may provide new avenues for therapeutic intervention in inflammatory disease. METHODS: We explored the kinetics of a range of cytokine and chemokine responses in primary murine macrophages stimulated with LPS in the presence versus absence of two clinically distinct species of Leishmania using sensitive multiplex cytokine analyses. To confirm that these effects were parasite-specific, we compared the effects of Leishmania uptake on LPS-induced cytokine expression with uptake of inert latex beads. RESULTS: Whilst Leishmania uptake alone did not induce significant levels of any cytokine analysed in this study, Leishmania uptake in the presence of LPS caused parasite-specific suppression of certain LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-12, IL-17 and IL-6. Interestingly, L. amazonensis was generally more suppressive than L. major. We also found that other LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1alpha, TNF-alpha and the chemokines MIP-1alpha and MCP-1 and also the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, were augmented during Leishmania uptake, in a parasite-specific manner. CONCLUSIONS: During uptake by macrophages, Leishmania evades the activation of a broad range of cytokines and chemokines. Further, in the presence of a strong inflammatory stimulus, Leishmania suppresses certain proinflammatory cytokine responses in a parasite-specific manner, however it augments the production of other proinflammatory cytokines. Our findings highlight the complexity of inflammatory cytokine signalling regulation in the context of the macrophage and Leishmania interaction and confirm the utility of the Leishmania/macrophage infection model as an experimental system for further studies of inflammatory regulation. Such studies may advance the development of therapies against inflammatory disease.

The Leishmania major LACK antigen with an immunodominant epitope at amino acids 156 to 173 is not required for early Th2 development in BALB/c mice.

The Leishmania major LACK antigen contains an immunodominant epitope at amino acids 156 to 173 (LACK(156-173)) that is believed to nucleate the pathological Th2 immune response in susceptible BALB/c mice. To test this hypothesis, we generated L. major parasites that express a mutated LACK that fails to activate Vbeta4/Valpha8 T-cell receptor transgenic T cells specific for this epitope. Although mutant parasites attenuated the expansion of endogenous LACK-specific, interleukin-4 (IL-4)-expressing, CD4 T cells compared to wild-type parasites in vivo, the overall frequency of IL-4 and gamma interferon-secreting lymphocytes was similar to that elicited by wild-type L. major. Mutant parasites demonstrated diminished amastigote viability and delayed lesion development in mice, although parasites could be recovered over 200 days after infection. Complementation with a wild-type lack fusion construct partially rescued these defects, indicating a role for endogenous LACK in parasitism. Mice inoculated with mutant parasites were not protected against subsequent infection with wild-type L. major.