Using ChatGPT to predict the future of personalized medicine.

Personalized medicine is a novel frontier in health care that is based on each person's unique genetic makeup. It represents an exciting opportunity to improve the future of individualized health care for all individuals. Pharmacogenomics, as the main part of personalized medicine, aims to optimize and create a more targeted treatment approach based on genetic variations in drug response. It is predicted that future treatments will be algorithm-based instead of evidence-based that will consider a patient's genetic, transcriptomic, proteomic, epigenetic, and lifestyle factors resulting in individualized medication. A generative pretrained transformer (GPT) is an artificial intelligence (AI) tool that generates language resembling human-like writing enabling users to engage in a manner that is practically identical to speaking with a human being. GPT's predictive algorithms can respond to questions that have never been addressed. Chat Generative Pretrained Transformer (ChatGPT) is an AI chatbot's advanced with conversational capabilities. In the present study, questions were asked from ChatGPT about the future of personalized medicine and pharmacogenomics. ChatGPT predicted both to be a promising approach with a bright future that holds great promises in improving patient outcomes and transforming the field of medicine. But it still has several limitations that need to be solved.

Lung Inflammation in alpha-1-antitrypsin deficient individuals with normal lung function.

BACKGROUND: Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficient (AATD) individuals are prone to develop early age of onset chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) more severe than non-genetic COPD. Here, we investigated the characteristics of lower respiratory tract of AATD individuals prior to the onset of clinically significant COPD. METHODS: Bronchoalveolar lavage was performed on 22 AATD with normal lung function and 14 healthy individuals. Cell counts and concentrations of proteases, alpha-1-antitrypsin and proinflammatory mediators were determined in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from study subjects. In order to determine the airway inflammation, we also analyzed immune cell components of the large airways from bronchial biopsies using immunohistochemistry in both study subjects. Finally, we made comparisons between airway inflammation and lung function rate of decline using four repeated lung function tests over one year in AATD individuals. RESULTS: AATD individuals with normal lung function had 3 folds higher neutrophil counts, 2 folds increase in the proteases levels, and 2-4 folds higher levels of IL-8, IL-6, IL-1ß, and leukotriene B4 in their epithelial lining fluid compared to controls. Neutrophil elastase levels showed a positive correlation with the levels of IL-8 and neutrophils in AATD epithelial lining fluid. AATD individuals also showed a negative correlation of baseline FEV1 with neutrophil count, neutrophil elastase, and cytokine levels in epithelial lining fluid (p < 0.05). In addition, we observed twofold increase in the number of lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, and mast cells of AATD epithelial lining fluid as compared to controls. CONCLUSION: Mild inflammation is present in the lower respiratory tract and airways of AATD individuals despite having normal lung function. A declining trend was also noticed in the lung function of AATD individuals which was correlated with pro-inflammatory phenotype of their lower respiratory tract. This results suggest the presence of proinflammatory phenotype in AATD lungs. Therefore, early anti-inflammatory therapies may be a potential strategy to prevent progression of lung disease in AATD individuals.

Characterization of hepatic inflammatory changes in a C57BL/6J mouse model of alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is a genetic disease caused by a hepatic accumulation of mutant alpha-1 antitrypsin (ZAAT). Individuals with AATD are prone to develop a chronic liver disease that remains undiagnosed until late stage of the disease. Here, we sought to characterize the liver pathophysiology of a human transgenic mouse model for AATD with a manifestation of liver disease compared with normal transgenic mice model. Male and female transgenic mice for normal (Pi*M) and mutant variant (Pi*Z) human alpha-1 antitrypsin at 3 and 6 mo of age were subjected to this study. The progression of hepatic ZAAT accumulation, hepatocyte injury, steatosis, liver inflammation, and fibrotic features were monitored by performing an in vivo study. We have also performed a Next-Gene transcriptomic analysis of the transgenic mice liver tissue 16 h after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration to delineate liver inflammatory response in Pi*Z mice as compared with Pi*M. Our results show hepatic ZAAT accumulation, followed by hepatocyte ballooning and liver steatosis developed at 3 mo in Pi*Z mice compared with the mice carrying normal variant of human alpha-1 antitrypsin. We observed higher levels of hepatic immune cell infiltrations in both 3- and 6-mo-old Pi*Z mice compared with Pi*M as an indication of liver inflammation. Liver fibrosis was observed as accumulation of collagen in 6-mo-old Pi*Z liver tissues compared with Pi*M control mice. Furthermore, the transcriptomic analysis revealed a dysregulated liver immune response to LPS in Pi*Z mice compared with Pi*M. Of particular interest for translational work, this study aims to establish a mouse model of AATD with a strong manifestation of liver disease that will be a valuable in vivo tool to study the pathophysiology of AATD-mediated liver disease. Our data suggest that the human transgenic mouse model of AATD could provide a suitable model for the evaluation of therapeutic approaches and preventive reagents against AATD-mediated liver disease.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have characterized a mouse model of human alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency with a strong manifestation of liver disease that can be used as an in vivo tool to test preventive and therapeutic reagents. Our data explores the altered immunophenotype of alpha-1 antitrypsin-deficient liver macrophages and suggests a relationship between acute inflammation, immune response, and fibrosis.

Cigarette smoke exposed airway epithelial cell-derived EVs promote pro-inflammatory macrophage activation in alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is a genetic disorder most commonly secondary to a single mutation in the SERPINA1 gene (PI*Z) that causes misfolding and accumulation of alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) in hepatocytes and mononuclear phagocytes which reduces plasma AAT and creates a toxic gain of function. This toxic gain of function promotes a pro-inflammatory phenotype in macrophages that contributes to lung inflammation and early-onset COPD, especially in individuals who smoke cigarettes. The aim of this study is to determine the role of cigarette exposed AATD macrophages and bronchial epithelial cells in AATD-mediated lung inflammation. METHODS: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from AATD and healthy individuals were differentiated into alveolar-like macrophages and exposed to air or cigarette smoke while in culture. Macrophage endoplasmic reticulum stress was quantified and secreted cytokines were measured using qPCR and cytokine ELISAs. To determine whether there is "cross talk" between epithelial cells and macrophages, macrophages were exposed to extracellular vesicles released by airway epithelial cells exposed to cigarette smoke and their inflammatory response was determined. RESULTS: AATD macrophages spontaneously produce several-fold more pro-inflammatory cytokines as compared to normal macrophages. AATD macrophages have an enhanced inflammatory response when exposed to cigarette smoke-induced extracellular vesicles (EVs) released from airway epithelial cells. Cigarette smoke-induced EVs induce expression of GM-CSF and IL-8 in AATD macrophages but have no effect on normal macrophages. Release of AAT polymers, potent neutrophil chemo attractants, were also increased from AATD macrophages after exposure to cigarette smoke-induced EVs. CONCLUSIONS: The expression of mutated AAT confers an inflammatory phenotype in AATD macrophages which disposes them to an exaggerated inflammatory response to cigarette smoke-induced EVs, and thus could contribute to progressive lung inflammation and damage in AATD individuals.

The Mechanism of Mitochondrial Injury in Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency Mediated Liver Disease.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is caused by a single mutation in the SERPINA1 gene, which culminates in the accumulation of misfolded alpha-1 antitrypsin (ZAAT) within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of hepatocytes. AATD is associated with liver disease resulting from hepatocyte injury due to ZAAT-mediated toxic gain-of-function and ER stress. There is evidence of mitochondrial damage in AATD-mediated liver disease; however, the mechanism by which hepatocyte retention of aggregated ZAAT leads to mitochondrial injury is unknown. Previous studies have shown that ER stress is associated with both high concentrations of fatty acids and mitochondrial dysfunction in hepatocytes. Using a human AAT transgenic mouse model and hepatocyte cell lines, we show abnormal mitochondrial morphology and function, and dysregulated lipid metabolism, which are associated with hepatic expression and accumulation of ZAAT. We also describe a novel mechanism of ZAAT-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction. We provide evidence that misfolded ZAAT translocates to the mitochondria for degradation. Furthermore, inhibition of ZAAT expression restores the mitochondrial function in ZAAT-expressing hepatocytes. Altogether, our results show that ZAAT aggregation in hepatocytes leads to mitochondrial dysfunction. Our findings suggest a plausible model for AATD liver injury and the possibility of mechanism-based therapeutic interventions for AATD liver disease.

Modulation of calreticulin expression reveals a novel exosome-mediated mechanism of Z variant α1-antitrypsin disposal.

α1-Antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is an inherited disease characterized by emphysema and liver disease. AATD is most often caused by a single amino acid substitution at position 342 in the mature protein, resulting in the Z mutation of the AAT gene (ZAAT). This substitution is associated with misfolding and accumulation of ZAAT in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of hepatocytes, causing a toxic gain of function. ERdj3 is an ER luminal DnaJ homologue, which, along with calreticulin, directly interacts with misfolded ZAAT. We hypothesize that depletion of each of these chaperones will change the fate of ZAAT polymers. Our study demonstrates that calreticulin modulation reveals a novel ZAAT degradation mechanism mediated by exosomes. Using human PiZZ hepatocytes and K42, a mouse calreticulin-deficient fibroblast cell line, our results show ERdj3 and calreticulin directly interact with ZAAT in PiZZ hepatocytes. Silencing calreticulin induces calcium independent ZAAT-ERdj3 secretion through the exosome pathway. This co-secretion decreases ZAAT aggregates within the ER of hepatocytes. We demonstrate that calreticulin has an inhibitory effect on exosome-mediated ZAAT-ERdj3 secretion. This is a novel ZAAT degradation process that involves a DnaJ homologue chaperone bound to ZAAT. In this context, calreticulin modulation may eliminate the toxic gain of function associated with aggregation of ZAAT in lung and liver, thus providing a potential new therapeutic approach to the treatment of AATD-related liver disease.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficient individuals have circulating extracellular vesicles with profibrogenic cargo.

BACKGROUND: Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD)-mediated liver disease is a toxic "gain-of-function" inflammation in the liver associated with intracellular retention of mutant alpha-1 antitrypsin. The clinical presentation of the disease includes fibrosis, cirrhosis and liver failure. However, the pathogenic mechanism of AATD-mediated liver disease is not well understood. Here, we investigated the role of plasma extracellular vesicles (EVs) in progression of AATD-mediated liver disease. METHODS: EVs were isolated from plasma of AATD individuals with liver disease and healthy controls. Their cytokines and miRNA content were examined by multiplex assay and small RNA sequencing. The bioactivity of EVs was assessed by qPCR, western blot analysis and immunofluorescent experiments using human hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) treated with EVs isolated from control or AATD plasma samples. RESULTS: We have found that AATD individuals have a distinct population of EVs with pathological cytokine and miRNA contents. When HSCs were cultured with AATD plasma derived-EVs, the expression of genes related to the development of fibrosis were significantly amplified compared to those treated with healthy control plasma EVs. CONCLUSION: AATD individuals have a distinct population of EVs with abnormal cytokine and miRNA contents and the capacity to activate HSCs and mediate fibrosis. Better understanding of the components which cause liver inflammation and fibrogenesis, leading to further liver injury, has the potential to lead to the development of new treatments or preventive strategies to prevent AATD-mediated liver disease. Video abstract.

Alpha-1 Antitrypsin-Deficient Macrophages Have Increased Matriptase-Mediated Proteolytic Activity.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency-associated emphysema is largely attributed to insufficient inhibition of neutrophil elastase released from neutrophils. Correcting AAT levels using augmentation therapy only slows disease progression, and that suggests a more complex process of lung destruction. Because alveolar macrophages (Mɸ) express AAT, we propose that the expression and intracellular accumulation of mutated Z-AAT (the most common mutation) compromises Mɸ function and contributes to emphysema development. Extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation is a hallmark of emphysema pathology. In this study, Mɸ from individuals with Z-AAT (Z-Mɸ) have greater proteolytic activity on ECM than do normal Mɸ. This abnormal Z-Mɸ activity is not abrogated by supplementation with exogenous AAT and is likely the result of cellular dysfunction induced by intracellular accumulation of Z-AAT. Using pharmacologic inhibitors, we show that several classes of proteases are involved in matrix degradation by Z-Mɸ. Importantly, compared with normal Mɸ, the membrane-bound serine protease, matriptase, is present in Z-Mɸ at higher levels and contributes to their proteolytic activity on ECM. In addition, we identified matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-14, a membrane-anchored metalloproteinase, as a novel substrate for matriptase, and showed that matriptase regulates the levels of MMP-14 on the cell surface. Thus, high levels of matriptase may contribute to increased ECM degradation by Z-Mɸ, both directly and through MMP-14 activation. In summary, the expression of Z-AAT in Mɸ confers increased proteolytic activity on ECM. This proteolytic activity is not rescued by exogenous AAT supplementation and could thus contribute to augmentation resistance in AAT deficiency-associated emphysema.

Erdj3 Has an Essential Role for Z Variant Alpha-1-Antitrypsin Degradation.

Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is an inherited disease characterized by emphysema and liver disease. AATD is most often caused by a single amino acid substitution at amino acid 342 in the mature protein, resulting in the Z mutation of the alpha-1-antitrypsin gene (ZAAT). This substitution is associated with misfolding and accumulation of ZAAT in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of hepatocytes and monocytes, causing a toxic gain of function. Retained ZAAT is eliminated by ER-associated degradation and autophagy. We hypothesized that alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT)-interacting proteins play critical roles in quality control of human AAT. Using co-immunoprecipitation, we identified ERdj3, an ER-resident Hsp40 family member, as a part of the AAT trafficking network. Depleting ERdj3 increased the rate of ZAAT degradation in hepatocytes by redirecting ZAAT to the ER calreticulin-EDEM1 pathway, followed by autophagosome formation. In the Huh7.5 cell line, ZAAT ER clearance resulted from enhancing ERdj3-mediated ZAAT degradation by silencing ERdj3 while simultaneously enhancing autophagy. In this context, ERdj3 suppression may eliminate the toxic gain of function associated with polymerization of ZAAT, thus providing a potential new therapeutic approach to the treatment of AATD-related liver disease. J. Cell. Biochem. 118: 3090-3101, 2017. © 2017 The Authors. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry Published by Wiley Periodicals Inc.

Tobacco smoke induces epithelial barrier dysfunction via receptor EphA2 signaling.

Erythropoietin-producing human hepatocellular carcinoma (Eph) receptors are the largest family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) that mediate various cellular and developmental processes. The degrees of expression of these key molecules control the cell-cell interactions. Although the role of Eph receptors and their ligand Ephrins is well studied in developmental processes, their function in tobacco smoke (TS)-induced epithelial barrier dysfunction is unknown. We hypothesized that TS may induce permeability in bronchial airway epithelial cell (BAEpC) monolayer by modulating receptor EphA2 expression, actin cytoskeleton, adherens junction, and focal adhesion proteins. Here we report that in BAEpCs, acute TS exposure significantly upregulated EphA2 and EphrinA1 expression, disrupted the actin filaments, decreased E-cadherin expression, and increased protein permeability, whereas the focal adhesion protein paxillin was unaffected. Silencing the receptor EphA2 expression with silencing interference RNA (siRNA) significantly attenuated TS-induced hyperpermeability in BAEpCs. In addition, when BAEpC monolayer was transfected with EphA2-expressing plasmid and treated with recombinant EphrinA1, the transepithelial electrical resistance decreased significantly. Furthermore, TS downregulated E-cadherin expression and induced hyperpermeability across BAEpC monolayer in a Erk1/Erk2, p38, and JNK MAPK-dependent manner. TS induced hyperpermeability in BAEpC monolayer by targeting cell-cell adhesions, and interestingly cell-matrix adhesions were unaffected. The present data suggest that TS causes significant damage to the BAEpCs via induction of EphA2 and downregulation of E-cadherin. Induction of EphA2 in the BAEpCs exposed to TS may be an important signaling event in the pathogenesis of TS-induced epithelial injury.

Sirtuin3 promotes the degradation of hepatic Z alpha-1 antitrypsin through lipophagy.

BACKGROUND: Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is a genetic disease caused by misfolding and accumulation of mutant alpha-1 antitrypsin (ZAAT) in the endoplasmic reticulum of hepatocytes. Hepatic ZAAT aggregates acquire a toxic gain-of-function that impacts the endoplasmic reticulum which is theorized to cause liver disease in individuals with AATD who present asymptomatic until late-stage cirrhosis. Currently, there is no treatment for AATD-mediated liver disease except liver transplantation. In our study of mitochondrial RNA, we identified that Sirtuin3 (SIRT3) plays a role in the hepatic phenotype of AATD. METHODS: Utilizing RNA and protein analysis in an in vitro AATD model, we investigated the role of SIRT3 in the pathophysiology of AATD-mediated liver disease while also characterizing our novel, transgenic AATD mouse model. RESULTS: We show lower expression of SIRT3 in ZAAT-expressing hepatocytes. In contrast, the overexpression of SIRT3 increases hepatic ZAAT degradation. ZAAT degradation mediated by SIRT3 appeared independent of proteasomal degradation and regular autophagy pathways. We observed that ZAAT-expressing hepatocytes have aberrant accumulation of lipid droplets, with ZAAT polymers localizing on the lipid droplet surface in a direct interaction with Perilipin2, which coats intracellular lipid droplets. SIRT3 overexpression also induced the degradation of lipid droplets in ZAAT-expressing hepatocytes. We observed that SIRT3 overexpression induces lipophagy by enhancing the interaction of Perilipin2 with HSC70. ZAAT polymers then degrade as a consequence of the mobilization of lipids through this process. CONCLUSIONS: In this context, SIRT3 activation may eliminate the hepatic toxic gain-of-function associated with the polymerization of ZAAT, providing a rationale for a potential novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of AATD-mediated liver disease.

Correlation of alpha-1 antitrypsin levels and exosome associated neutrophil elastase endothelial injury in subjects with SARS-CoV2 infection.

BACKGROUND: Severe acute respiratory syndrome caused by a novel coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has infected more than 18 million people worldwide. The activation of endothelial cells is a hallmark of signs of SARS-CoV-2 infection that includes altered integrity of vessel barrier and endothelial inflammation. OBJECTIVES: Pulmonary endothelial activation is suggested to be related to the profound neutrophil elastase (NE) activity, which is necessary for sterilization of phagocytosed bacterial pathogens. However, unopposed activity of NE increases alveolocapillary permeability and extracellular matrix degradation. The uncontrolled protease activity of NE during the inflammatory phase of lung diseases might be due to the resistance of exosome associated NE to inhibition by alpha-1 antitrypsin. METHOD: 31 subjects with a diagnosis of SARS-CoV2 infection were recruited in the disease group and samples from 30 voluntaries matched for age and sex were also collected for control. RESULTS: We measured the plasma levels of exosome-associated NE in SARS-CoV-2 patients which, were positively correlated with sign of endothelial damage in those patients as determined by plasma levels of LDH. Notably, we also found strong correlation with plasma levels of alpha-1 antitrypsin and exosome-associated NE in SARS-CoV-2 patients. Using macrovascular endothelial cells, we also observed that purified NE activity is inhibited by purified alpha-1 antitrypsin while, NE associated with exosomes are resistant to inhibition and show less sensitivity to alpha-1 antitrypsin inhibitory activity, in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Our results point out the role of exosome-associated NE in exacerbation of endothelial injury in SARS-CoV-2 infection. We have demonstrated that exosome-associated NE could be served as a new potential therapeutic target of severe systemic manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

BRCA1 mediates protein homeostasis through the ubiquitination of PERK and IRE1.

Tumors with BRCA1 mutations have poor prognoses due to genomic instability. Yet this genomic instability has risks and BRCA1-deficient (def) cancer cells must develop pathways to mitigate these risks. One such risk is the accumulation of unfolded proteins in BRCA1-def cancers from increased mutations due to their loss of genomic integrity. Little is known about how BRCA1-def cancers survive their genomic instability. Here we show that BRCA1 is an E3 ligase in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that targets the unfolded protein response (UPR) stress sensors, Eukaryotic Translation Initiation Factor 2-alpha Kinase 3 (PERK) and Serine/Threonine-Protein Kinase/Endoribonuclease Inositol-Requiring Enzyme 1 (IRE1) for ubiquitination and subsequent proteasome-mediated degradation. When BRCA1 is mutated or depleted, both PERK and IRE1 protein levels are increased, resulting in a constitutively activated UPR. Furthermore, the inhibition of protein folding or UPR signaling markedly decreases the overall survival of BRCA1-def cancer cells. Our findings define a mechanism used by the BRCA1-def cancer cells to survive their increased unfolded protein burden which can be used to develop new therapeutic strategies to treat these cancers.

The unfolded protein response to PI*Z alpha-1 antitrypsin in human hepatocellular and murine models.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency (AATD) is an inherited disease caused by mutations in the serpin family A member 1 (SERPINA1, also known as AAT) gene. The most common variant, PI*Z (Glu342Lys), causes accumulation of aberrantly folded AAT in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of hepatocytes that is associated with a toxic gain of function, hepatocellular injury, liver fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a cellular response to improperly folded proteins meant to alleviate ER stress. It has been unclear whether PI*Z AAT elicits liver cell UPR, due in part to limitations of current cellular and animal models. This study investigates whether UPR is activated in a novel human PI*Z AAT cell line and a new PI*Z human AAT (hAAT) mouse model. A PI*Z AAT hepatocyte cell line (Huh7.5Z) was established using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 gene editing of the normal ATT (PI*MM) gene in the Huh7.5 cell line. Additionally, novel full-length genomic DNA PI*Z hAAT and PI*M hAAT transgenic mouse models were established. Using these new models, UPR in Huh7.5Z cells and PI*Z mice were comprehensively determined. Robust activation of UPR was observed in Huh7.5Z cells compared to Huh7.5 cells. Activated caspase cascade and apoptosis markers, increased chaperones, and autophagy markers were also detected in Z hepatocytes. Selective attenuation of UPR signaling branches was observed in PI*Z hAAT mice in which the protein kinase R-like ER kinase and inositol-requiring enzyme1α branches were suppressed while the activating transcription factor 6α branch remained active. This study provides direct evidence that PI*Z AAT triggers canonical UPR and that hepatocytes survive pro-apoptotic UPR by selective suppression of UPR branches. Our data improve understanding of underlying pathological molecular mechanisms of PI*Z AATD liver disease.

Neutrophil elastase promotes macrophage cell adhesion and cytokine production through the integrin-Src kinases pathway.

There are a number of respiratory diseases characterized by the presence of excess neutrophil elastase (NE) activity in tissues, including cystic fibrosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). NE is considered a primary contributor to disease development, but the precise mechanism has yet to be fully determined. We hypothesized that NE alters the function of macrophages (Mɸ) which play a critical role in many physiological processes in healthy lungs. We demonstrate that monocyte-derived Mɸ exposed to NE releases active matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), increase expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα, IL-1ß, and IL-8, and reduce capacity to phagocytose bacteria. Changes in Mɸ function following NE treatment were accompanied by increased adhesion and cytoskeleton re-arrangement, indicating the possibility of integrin involvement. To support this observation, we demonstrate that NE induces phosphorylation of kinases from the Src kinase family, a hallmark of integrin signaling activation. Moreover, pretreatment of Mɸ with a specific Src kinase inhibitor, PP2 completely prevents NE-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Taken together these findings indicate that NE participates in lung destruction not only through direct proteolytic degradation of matrix proteins, but also through activation of Mɸ inflammatory and proteolytic functions.

Gut microbiota: a perspective of precision medicine in endocrine disorders.

Gut microbiota composition is unique in every individual, it impacts on organ functions that produce hormones. Gut microbiota composition balance is directly related to our general health status. This continual interaction between gut microbiota and endocrine organs sometimes can be considered as the etiology of diseases such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), obesity, osteoporosis, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and thyroid diseases. Microbiota is introduced for a total collection of microbial organisms in our bodies and microbiome referred for their genome and their collective functions. Near 100 trillion microorganisms live in our body and almost all of them occupy the human gut gastrointestinal tract. Precision medicine can play a crucial role in health maintenance by affecting gut microbiota composition in every individual. It can also develop special treatments specifically for every individual. In this review, we addressed any correlation between gut microbiota and endocrine disorders including T2DM, obesity, PCOS, thyroid disorders and osteoporosis.

SVIP regulates Z variant alpha-1 antitrypsin retro-translocation by inhibiting ubiquitin ligase gp78.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is an inherited disorder characterized by early-onset emphysema and liver disease. The most common disease-causing mutation is a single amino acid substitution (Glu/Lys) at amino acid 342 of the mature protein, resulting in disruption of the 290-342 salt bridge (an electrophoretic abnormality defining the mutation [Z allele, or ZAAT]), protein misfolding, polymerization, and accumulation in the endoplasmic reticulum of hepatocytes and monocytes. The Z allele causes a toxic gain of function, and the E3 ubiquitin ligase gp78 promotes degradation and increased solubility of endogenous ZAAT. We hypothesized that the accumulation of ZAAT is influenced by modulation of gp78 E3 ligase and SVIP (small VCP-interacting protein) interaction with p97/VCP in ZAAT-expressing hepatocytes. We showed that the SVIP inhibitory effect on ERAD due to overexpression causes the accumulation of ZAAT in a human Z hepatocyte-like cell line (AT01). Overexpression of gp78, as well as SVIP suppression, induces gp78-VCP/p97 interaction in AT01 cells. This interaction leads to retro-translocation of ZAAT and reduction of the SVIP inhibitory role in ERAD. In this context, overexpression of gp78 or SVIP suppression may eliminate the toxic gain of function associated with polymerization of ZAAT, thus providing a potential new therapeutic approach to the treatment of AATD.

MicroRNA-302b targets Mcl-1 and inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in malignant pleural mesothelioma cells.

MicroRNAs belonging to the miR-302 family are emerging as key players in the control of cell growth, and maintaining pluripotency during cell fate determination and differentiation in embryonic stem cells. However, the mechanisms whereby ephA2/ephirnA1 signaling regulates miR-302b expression and attenuates malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) cell growth are not known. Our study identified a novel mechanism of ephrin-A1 mediated anti-oncogenic signaling in MPM. Ephrin-A1 treatment up regulates miR-302b expression in MPM cells and attenuates cell proliferation and tumorsphere formation via repression of myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1). The expression of miR-302b was analyzed by qPCR, the expression of Mcl-1 was analyzed by RT-PCR, immuno-blotting and Immunofluorescence staining. To confirm that ephrin-A1 regulates the expression of Mcl-1 mRNA through miR-302b up regulation, cells were transfected with and without miR-302b and miR-302b inhibitor prior to ephrinA1 treatment. The cell proliferation and tumorsphere formation was measured by WST-1 and matrigel assays respectively. In addition, to confirm the binding of miR-302b to the 3'UTR of Mcl-1 Luciferase assay was performed. Ephrin-A1 treatment induced several fold increases of miR-302b expression in MM cells. In ephrin-A1 treated MM cells, Mcl-1 expression was significantly down regulated when compared to control. Moreover, ephrin-A1 activation significantly inhibited MM cell proliferation and tumorsphere growth. Furthermore, ephrinA1 and miR-302b induced apoptosis in MM cells. The present data suggests that ephrin-A1 induces the expression of miR-302b in MM cells which targets Mcl-1 thereby inhibits MM tumorsphere growth by inducing apoptosis.