Understanding of the formation of shallow level defects from the intrinsic defects of lead tri-halide perovskites.

Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites have unique electronic properties in which deep level defects are rarely formed. This unique defect characteristic is the source of the long carrier diffusion length. This theoretical study shows what causes this characteristic formation of shallow level defects in lead tri-halide perovskites. Comparative studies between iodides and other halides showed that deep level defect states were generated for Cl based perovskites. Longer Pb-halide bond lengths and narrower band gaps are beneficial for preventing deep level defect states. Additionally, our study shows that the formation of shallow level defects does not change even when the lattice structures of the perovskites do not reach their equilibrium structures.

Systematic analysis of the unique band gap modulation of mixed halide perovskites.

Solar cells based on organic-inorganic hybrid metal halide perovskites have been proven to be one of the most promising candidates for the next generation thin film photovoltaic cells. Mixing Br or Cl into I-based perovskites has been frequently tried to enhance the cell efficiency and stability. One of the advantages of mixed halides is the modulation of band gap by controlling the composition of the incorporated halides. However, the reported band gap transition behavior has not been resolved yet. Here a theoretical model is presented to understand the electronic structure variation of metal mixed-halide perovskites through hybrid density functional theory. Comparative calculations in this work suggest that the band gap correction including spin-orbit interaction is essential to describe the band gap changes of mixed halides. In our model, both the lattice variation and the orbital interactions between metal and halides play key roles to determine band gap changes and band alignments of mixed halides. It is also presented that the band gap of mixed halide thin films can be significantly affected by the distribution of halide composition.

Atomistic study on dopant-distributions in realistically sized, highly P-doped Si nanowires.

The dependency of dopant-distributions on channel diameters in realistically sized, highly phosphorus-doped silicon nanowires is investigated with an atomistic tight-binding approach coupled to self-consistent Schrödinger-Poisson simulations. By overcoming the limit in channel sizes and doping densities of previous studies, this work examines electronic structures and electrostatics of free-standing circular silicon nanowires that are phosphorus-doped with a high density of ∼ 2 × 10(19) cm(-3) and have 12 nm-28 nm cross-sections. Results of analysis on the channel energy indicate that the uniformly distributed dopant profile would be hardly obtained when the nanowire cross-section is smaller than 20 nm. Insufficient room to screen donor ions and shallower impurity bands are the primary reasons of the nonuniform dopant-distributions in smaller nanowires. Being firmly connected to the recent experimental study (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2009, 106, 15254-15258), this work establishes the first theoretical framework for understanding dopant-distributions in over-10 nm highly doped silicon nanowires.

Retarded dopant diffusion by moderated dopant-dopant interactions in Si nanowires.

The retarded dopant diffusion in Si nanostructures is investigated using the first principles calculation. It is presented that weak dopant-dopant interaction energy (DDIE) in nanostructures is responsible for the suppressed dopant diffusion in comparison with that in bulk Si. The DDIE is significantly reduced as the diameter of the Si nanowire becomes smaller. The mechanical softening and quantum confinement found in nanostructures are the physical origin for the small interaction energy. Reduced dopant-dopant interaction slows down the diffusion process from heavily doped regions to undoped regions. Thus, we suggest that an additional annealing process is indispensable to make a desired dopant profile in the nanoscale semiconductor devices.

Hidden structural order in orthorhombic Ta2O5.

We investigate using first-principles calculations the atomic structure of the orthorhombic phase of Ta(2)O(5). Although this structure has been studied for decades, the correct structural model is controversial owing to the complication of structural disorder. We identify a new low-energy high-symmetry structural model, where all Ta and O atoms have the correct formal oxidation states of +5 and -2, respectively, and the experimentally reported triangular lattice symmetry of the Ta sublattice appears dynamically at finite temperatures. To understand the complex atomic structure of the Ta(2)O(3) plane, a triangular graph-paper representation is devised and used alongside oxidation state analysis to reveal infinite variations of the low-energy structural model. The structural disorder of Ta(2)O(5) observed in experiments is attributed to the intrinsic structural variations, and oxygen vacancies that drive the collective relaxation of the O sublattice.

Asymmetric doping in silicon nanostructures: the impact of surface dangling bonds.

We investigate peculiar dopant deactivation behaviors of Si nanostrucures with first principle calculations and reveal that surface dangling bonds (SDBs) on Si nanostructures could be fundamental obstacles in nanoscale doping. In contrast to bulk Si, as the size of Si becomes smaller, SDBs on Si nanostructures prefer to be charged and asymmetrically deactivate n- and p-type doping. The asymmetric dopant deactivation in Si nanostructures is ascribed to the preference for negatively charged SDBs as a result of a larger quantum confinement effect on the conduction band. On the basis of our results, we show that the control of the growth direction of silicon nanowire as well as surface passivation is very important in preventing dopant deactivation.

Phase Selection of Cesium Lead Triiodides through Surface Ligand Engineering.

The cesium lead triiodide (CsPbI3) perovskite is a promising candidate for stable light absorbers and red-light-emitting sources due to its outstanding stability. Phase engineering is the most important approach for the commercialization of CsPbI3 because the optically inactive nonperovskite structure is more stable than three-dimensional (3-D) perovskite lattices at ambient temperature. This study presents an in-depth evaluation to find the optimum surface ligand and to reveal the mechanism of phase stabilization by surface ligands. Thermodynamic evaluations combined with density functional theory calculations indicate the criteria for forming stable 3-D CsPbI3 perovskites under surface and volume free energy competition between perovskite and nonperovskite phases. Comparative calculations for ammonium, alcohol, and thiol groups show that ammonium groups enhance the phase stability of 3-D perovskites the most. In addition, ammonium-passivated CsPbI3 is relatively robust against defect formation and H2O adsorption.

Roles of SnX2 (X = F, Cl, Br) Additives in Tin-Based Halide Perovskites toward Highly Efficient and Stable Lead-Free Perovskite Solar Cells.

Preserving the stability of Sn-based halide perovskites is a primary concern in developing photovoltaic light-absorbing materials for lead-free perovskite solar cells. Whereas the addition of SnX2 (X = F, Cl, Br) has been demonstrated to improve the photovoltaic performance of Sn halide perovskite solar cells, the mechanistic roles of SnX2 in the performance enhancement have not yet been studied appropriately. Here we perform a comparative study of CsSnI3 films and devices and examine how SnX2 additives affect their stability, and the results are corroborated by first-principles-based theoretical calculations. Unlike the conventional belief that the additives annihilate defects, we find that the additives effectively passivate the surface and stabilize the perovskite phase, promoting the stability of CsSnI3. Our mechanism suggests that SnBr2, which shows ca. 100 h of prolonged stability along with a high power conversion efficiency of 4.3%, is the best additive for enhancing the stability of CsSnI3.

Stacking effect of polyfluorene on the chemical shift and electron transport.

We investigate the structures, NMR chemical shifts, absorption spectra, frontier molecular orbitals, and transition density matrices of pi-stacked polyfluorenes by ab initio calculations. For F1-F4, we consider two different conformations, syn and anti. The simulated 1H NMR chemical shifts are in good agreement with the previous experiment, and the significantly upfielded chemical shifts explain that the fluorene moieties are stacked on each other. It is found that the relative stability for syn and anti conformers is almost equivalent in B3LYP calculations; however, the syn conformer becomes much more stable than the anti conformer in MP2 calculations, which is consistent with the experimental finding that only the syn conformers are relevant. The vertical detachment energy, which is linearly proportional to the ionization potential, shows the same size dependence as the previous experiment. The electron attachment energy decreases exponentially as the size increases, which implies that the electron transport would be possible even for long chains such as F3 and F4. This was evident from the frontier molecular orbitals (HOMO and LUMO). Also, it is found that the syn conformers are very favorable for electron transport through the pi-stacked fluorene moieties.

The Role of Intrinsic Defects in Methylammonium Lead Iodide Perovskite.

One of the major merits of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite as an efficient absorber material for the photovoltaic cell is its long carrier lifetime. We investigate the role of the intrinsic defects of CH3NH3PbI3 on its outstanding photovoltaic properties using density-functional studies. Two types of defects are of interest, i.e., Schottky defects and Frenkel defects. Schottky defects, such as PbI2 and CH3NH3I vacancy, do not make a trap state, which can reduce carrier lifetime. Elemental defects like Pb, I, and CH3NH3 vacancies derived from Frenkel defects act as dopants, which explains the unintentional doping of methylammonium lead halides (MALHs). The absence of gap states from intrinsic defects of MALHs can be ascribed to the ionic bonding from organic-inorganic hybridization. These results explain why the perovskite MALHs can be an efficient semiconductor, even when grown using simple solution processes. It also suggests that the n-/p-type can be efficiently manipulated by controlling growth processes.

A Pathway to Type-I Band Alignment in Ge/Si Core-Shell Nanowires.

We investigate the electronic band structures of Ge/Si core-shell nanowires (CSNWs) and devise a way to realize the electron quantum well at Ge core atoms with first-principles calculations. We reveal that the electronic band engineering by the quantum confinement and the lattice strain can induce the type-I/II band alignment transition, and the resulting type-I band alignment generates the electron quantum well in Ge/Si CSNWs. We also find that the type-I/II transition in Ge/Si CSNWs is highly related to the direct to indirect band gap transition through the analysis of charge density and band structures. In terms of the quantum confinement, for [100] and [111] directional Ge/Si CSNWs, the type-I/II transition can be obtained by decreasing the diameters, whereas a [110] directional CSNW preserves the type-II band alignment even at diameters as small as 1 nm. By applying a compressive strain on [110] CSNWs, the type-I band alignment can be formed. Our results suggest that Ge/Si CSNWs can have the type-I band alignment characteristics by the band structure engineering, which enables both n-type and p-type quantum-well transistors to be fabricated using Ge/Si CSNWs for high-speed logic applications.

Surface ferromagnetic p-type ZnO nanowires through charge transfer doping.

We report first-principles theoretical investigation of p-type charge transfer doping of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires by molecular adsorption. We find that spontaneous dissociative adsorption of fluorine molecules introduces half-emptying of otherwise fully filled oxygen-derived surface states. The resulting surface Fermi level is so close to the valence band maximum of the ZnO nanowire that the nanowire undergoes significant p-type charge transfer doping. Those half-filled surface states are fully spin-polarized and lead to surface ferromagnetism that is stable at room temperature. We also analyze the kinetic control regime of the surface transfer doping and find that it may result in nonequilibrium steady states. The present results suggest that postgrowth engineering of surface states has high potential in manipulating ZnO nanostructures useful for both electronics and spintronics.

Strain-driven electronic band structure modulation of si nanowires.

One of the major challenges toward Si nanowire (SiNW) based photonic devices is controlling the electronic band structure of the Si nanowire to obtain a direct band gap. Here, we present a new strategy for controlling the electronic band structure of Si nanowires. Our method is attributed to the band structure modulation driven by uniaxial strain. We show that the band structure modulation with lattice strain is strongly dependent on the crystal orientation and diameter of SiNWs. In the case of [100] and [111] SiNWs, tensile strain enhances the direct band gap characteristic, whereas compressive strain attenuates it. [110] SiNWs have a different strain dependence in that both compressive and tensile strain make SiNWs exhibit an indirect band gap. We discuss the origin of this strain dependence based on the band features of bulk silicon and the wave functions of SiNWs. These results could be helpful for band structure engineering and analysis of SiNWs in nanoscale devices.