Assessing nanoparticle colloidal stability with single-particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS).

Biological interactions, toxicity, and environmental fate of engineered nanoparticles are affected by colloidal stability and aggregation. To assess nanoparticle aggregation, analytical methods are needed that allow quantification of individual nanoparticle aggregates. However, most techniques used for nanoparticle aggregation analysis are limited to ensemble measurements or require harsh sample preparation that may introduce artifacts. An ideal method would analyze aggregate size in situ with single-nanoparticle resolution. Here, we established and validated single-particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS) as an unbiased high-throughput analytical technique to quantify nanoparticle size distributions and aggregation in situ. We induced nanoparticle aggregation by exposure to physiologically relevant saline conditions and applied SP-ICP-MS to quantify aggregate size and aggregation kinetics at the individual aggregate level. In situ SP-ICP-MS analysis revealed rational surface engineering principles for the preparation of colloidally stable nanoparticles. Our quantitative SP-ICP-MS technique is a platform technology to evaluate aggregation characteristics of various types of surface-engineered nanoparticles under physiologically relevant conditions. Potential widespread applications of this method may include the study of nanoparticle aggregation in environmental samples and the preparation of colloidally stable nanoparticle formulations for bioanalytical assays and nanomedicine. Graphical abstract.

Design and characterization of a synthetically accessible, photodegradable hydrogel for user-directed formation of neural networks.

Hydrogels with photocleavable units incorporated into the cross-links have provided researchers with the ability to control mechanical properties temporally and study the role of matrix signaling on stem cell function and fate. With a growing interest in dynamically tunable cell culture systems, methods to synthesize photolabile hydrogels from simple precursors would facilitate broader accessibility. Here, a step-growth photodegradable poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogel system cross-linked through a strain promoted alkyne-azide cycloaddition (SPAAC) reaction and degraded through the cleavage of a nitrobenzyl ether moiety integrated into the cross-links is developed from commercially available precursors in three straightforward synthetic steps with high yields (>95%). The network evolution and degradation properties are characterized in response to one- and two-photon irradiation. The PEG hydrogel is employed to encapsulate embryonic stem cell-derived motor neurons (ESMNs), and in situ degradation is exploited to gain three-dimensional control over the extension of motor axons using two-photon infrared light. Finally, ESMNs and their in vivo synaptic partners, myotubes, are coencapsulated, and the formation of user-directed neural networks is demonstrated.

High-stiffness, fast-crosslinking, cartilage matrix bioinks.

Scaffolds derived from cartilage extracellular matrix may contain intrinsic chondroinductivity and have promise for cartilage regeneration. Cartilage is typically ground into devitalized particles (DVC) and several groups have pioneered innovative methods to rebuild the DVC into a new scaffold. However, challenges remain regarding the fluid and solid biomechanics of cartilage-based scaffolds in achieving 1) high mechanical performance akin to native cartilage and 2) easy surgical delivery/retention. Fortunately, photocrosslinking bioinks may benefit clinical translation: paste-like/injectable precursor rheology facilitates surgical placement, and in situ photocrosslinking enables material retention within any size/shape of defect. While solubilized DVC has been modified with methacryloyls (MeSDVC), MeSDVC is limited by slow crosslinking times (e.g., 5-10 min). Therefore, in the current study, we fabricated a pentenoate-modified SDVC (PSDVC), to enable a faster crosslinking reaction via a thiol-ene click chemistry. The crosslinking time of the PSDVC was faster (∼1.7 min) than MeSDVC (∼4 min). We characterized the solid and fluid mechanics/printabilities of PSDVC, pentenoate-modified hyaluronic acid (PHA), and the PHA or PSDVC with added DVC particles. While the addition of DVC particles enhanced the printed shape fidelity of PHA or PSDVC, the increased clogging decreased the ease of printing and cell viability after bioprinting, and future refinement is needed for DVC-containing bioinks. However, the PSDVC alone had a paste-like rheology/good bioprintability prior to crosslinking, the fastest crosslinking time (i.e., 1.7 min), and the highest compressive modulus (i.e., 3.12 ± 0.41 MPa) after crosslinking. Overall, the PSDVC may have future potential as a translational material for cartilage repair.

Comparison of a Thiolated Demineralized Bone Matrix Hydrogel to a Clinical Product Control for Regeneration of Large Sheep Cranial Defects.

Regeneration of calvarial bone remains a major challenge in the clinic as available options do not sufficiently regenerate bone in larger defect sizes. Calvarial bone regeneration cases involving secondary medical conditions, such as brain herniation during traumatic brain injury (TBI) treatment, further exacerbate treatment options. Hydrogels are well-positioned for severe TBI treatment, given their innate flexibility and potential for bone regeneration to treat TBI in a single-stage surgery. The current study evaluated a photocrosslinking pentenoate-modified hyaluronic acid polymer with thiolated demineralized bone matrix (i.e., TDBM hydrogel) capable of forming a completely interconnected hydrogel matrix for calvarial bone regeneration. The TDBM hydrogel demonstrated a setting time of 120 s, working time of 3 to 7 days, negligible change in setting temperature, physiological setting pH, and negligible cytotoxicity, illustrating suitable performance for in vivo application. Side-by-side ovine calvarial bone defects (19 mm diameter) were employed to compare the TDBM hydrogel to the standard-of-care control material DBX®. After 16 weeks, the TDBM hydrogel had comparable healing to DBX® as demonstrated by mechanical push-out testing (~800 N) and histology. Although DBX® had 59% greater new bone volume compared to the TDBM hydrogel via micro-computed tomography, both demonstrated minimal bone regeneration overall (15 to 25% of defect volume). The current work presents a method for comparing the regenerative potential of new materials to clinical products using a side-by-side cranial bone defect model. Comparison of novel biomaterials to a clinical product control (i.e., standard-of-care) provides an important baseline for successful regeneration and potential for clinical translation.

Regenerative rehabilitation with conductive biomaterials for spinal cord injury.

The individual approaches of regenerative medicine efforts alone and rehabilitation efforts alone have not yet fully restored function after severe spinal cord injury (SCI). Regenerative rehabilitation may be leveraged to promote regeneration of the spinal cord tissue, and promote reorganization of the regenerated neural pathways and intact spinal circuits for better functional recovery for SCI. Conductive biomaterials may be a linchpin that empowers the synergy between regenerative medicine and rehabilitation approaches, as electrical stimulation applied to the spinal cord could facilitate neural reorganization. In this review, we discuss current regenerative medicine approaches in clinical trials and the rehabilitation, or neuromodulation, approaches for SCI, along with their respective translational limitations. Furthermore, we review the translational potential, in a surgical context, of conductive biomaterials (e.g., conductive polymers, carbon-based materials, metallic nanoparticle-based materials) as they pertain to SCI. While pre-formed scaffolds may be difficult to translate to human contusion SCIs, injectable composites that contain blended conductive components and can form within the injury may be more translational. However, given that there are currently no in vivo SCI studies that evaluated conductive materials combined with rehabilitation approaches, we discuss several limitations of conductive biomaterials, including demonstrating safety and efficacy, that will need to be addressed in the future for conductive biomaterials to become SCI therapeutics. Even so, the use of conductive biomaterials creates a synergistic opportunity to merge the fields of regenerative medicine and rehabilitation and redefine what regenerative rehabilitation means for the spinal cord. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: For spinal cord injury (SCI), the individual approaches of regenerative medicine and rehabilitation are insufficient to fully restore functional recovery; however, the goal of regenerative rehabilitation is to combine these two disparate fields to maximize the functional outcomes. Concepts similar to regenerative rehabilitation for SCI have been discussed in several reviews, but for the first time, this review considers how conductive biomaterials may synergize the two approaches. We cover current regenerative medicine and rehabilitation approaches for SCI, and the translational advantages and disadvantages, in a surgical context, of conductive biomaterials used in biomedical applications that may be additionally applied to SCI. Furthermore, we identify the current limitations and translational challenges for conductive biomaterials before they may become therapeutics for SCI.

The Rheology and Printability of Cartilage Matrix-Only Biomaterials.

The potential chondroinductivity from cartilage matrix makes it promising for cartilage repair; however, cartilage matrix-based hydrogels developed thus far have failed to match the mechanical performance of native cartilage or be bioprinted without adding polymers for reinforcement. There is a need for cartilage matrix-based hydrogels with robust mechanical performance and paste-like precursor rheology for bioprinting/enhanced surgical placement. In the current study, our goals were to increase hydrogel stiffness and develop the paste-like precursor/printability of our methacryl-modified solubilized and devitalized cartilage (MeSDVC) hydrogels. We compared two methacryloylating reagents, methacrylic anhydride (MA) and glycidyl methacrylate (GM), and varied the molar excess (ME) of MA from 2 to 20. The MA-modified MeSDVCs had greater methacryloylation than GM-modified MeSDVC (20 ME). While GM and most of the MA hydrogel precursors exhibited paste-like rheology, the 2 ME MA and GM MeSDVCs had the best printability (i.e., shape fidelity, filament collapse). After crosslinking, the 2 ME MA MeSDVC had the highest stiffness (1.55 ± 0.23 MPa), approaching the modulus of native cartilage, and supported the viability/adhesion of seeded cells for 15 days. Overall, the MA (2 ME) improved methacryloylation, hydrogel stiffness, and printability, resulting in a stand-alone MeSDVC printable biomaterial. The MeSDVC has potential as a future bioink and has future clinical relevance for cartilage repair.

Independent control of molecular weight, concentration, and stiffness of hyaluronic acid hydrogels.

Hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels have been used for a multitude of applications, perhaps most notably for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, owing to the versatility of the polymer and its tunable nature. Various groups have investigated the impact of hydrogel parameters (e.g. molecular weight, concentration, stiffness, etc)in vitroandin vivoto achieve desired material performance characteristics. A limitation in the literature to date has been that altering one hydrogel parameter (a 'manipulated variable') to achieve a given hydrogel characteristic (a 'controlled variable') changes two variables at a time (e.g. altering molecular weight and/or concentration to investigate cell response to stiffness). Therefore, if cell responses differ, it may be possible that more than one variable caused the changes in observed responses. In the current study, we leveraged thiol-ene click chemistry with a crosslinker to develop a method that minimizes material performance changes and permitted multiple material properties to be independently held constant to evaluate a single variable at a time. Independent control was accomplished by tuning the concentration of crosslinker to achieve an effectively constant stiffness for different HA hydrogel molecular weights and polymer concentrations. Specific formulations were thereby identified that enabled the molecular weight (76-1550 kDa), concentration (2%-10%), or stiffness (∼1-350 kPa) to be varied while the other two were held constant, a key technical achievement. The response of rat mesenchymal stem cells to varying molecular weight, concentration, and stiffness demonstrated consistent upregulation of osteocalcin gene expression. The methodology presented to achieve independent control of hydrogel parameters may potentially be adopted by others for alternative hydrogel polymers, cell types, or cell culture medium compositions to minimize confounding variables in experimental hydrogel designs.

Conductive and injectable hyaluronic acid/gelatin/gold nanorod hydrogels for enhanced surgical translation and bioprinting.

There is growing evidence indicating the need to combine the rehabilitation and regenerative medicine fields to maximize functional recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI), but there are limited methods to synergistically combine the fields. Conductive biomaterials may enable synergistic combination of biomaterials with electric stimulation (ES), which may enable direct ES of neurons to enhance axon regeneration and reorganization for better functional recovery; however, there are three major challenges in developing conductive biomaterials: (1) low conductivity of conductive composites, (2) many conductive components are cytotoxic, and (3) many conductive biomaterials are pre-formed scaffolds and are not injectable. Pre-formed, noninjectable scaffolds may hinder clinical translation in a surgical context for the most common contusion-type of SCI. Alternatively, an injectable biomaterial, inspired by lessons from bioinks in the bioprinting field, may be more translational for contusion SCIs. Therefore, in the current study, a conductive hydrogel was developed by incorporating high aspect ratio citrate-gold nanorods (GNRs) into a hyaluronic acid and gelatin hydrogel. To fabricate nontoxic citrate-GNRs, a robust synthesis for high aspect ratio GNRs was combined with an indirect ligand exchange to exchange a cytotoxic surfactant for nontoxic citrate. For enhanced surgical placement, the hydrogel precursor solution (i.e., before crosslinking) was paste-like, injectable/bioprintable, and fast-crosslinking (i.e., 4 min). Finally, the crosslinked hydrogel supported the adhesion/viability of seeded rat neural stem cells in vitro. The current study developed and characterized a GNR conductive hydrogel/bioink that provided a refinable and translational platform for future synergistic combination with ES to improve functional recovery after SCI.

Development and quantitative characterization of the precursor rheology of hyaluronic acid hydrogels for bioprinting.

Bioprinting technologies have tremendous potential for advancing regenerative medicine due to the precise spatial control over depositing a printable biomaterial, or bioink. Despite the growing interest in bioprinting, the field is challenged with developing biomaterials for extrusion-based bioprinting. The paradigm of contemporary bioink studies relies on trial-and-error methods for discovering printable biomaterials, which has little practical use for others who endeavor to develop bioinks. There is pressing need to follow the precedent set by a few pioneering studies that have attempted to standardize bioink characterizations for determining the properties that define printability. Here, we developed a pentenoate-functionalized hyaluronic acid hydrogel (PHA) into a printable bioink and used three recommended, quantitative rheological assessments to characterize the printability: 1) yield stress, 2) viscosity, and 3) storage modulus recovery. The most important characteristic is the yield stress; we found a yield stress upper limit of ∼1000 Pa for PHA. Measuring the viscosity was advantageous for determining shear-thinning behavior, which aided in extruding highly viscous PHA through a nozzle. Post-printing recovery is required to maintain shape fidelity and we found storage modulus recoveries above ∼85% were sufficient for PHA. Two formulations had superior printability (i.e., 1.5 MDa PHA - 4 wt%, and 1 MDa PHA - 8 wt%), and increasing cell concentrations in PHA up to 9 × 106 cells/mL had minimal effects on the printability. Even so, other factors such as sterilization and peptide modifications to enhance bioactivity may influence printability, highlighting the need for investigators to consider such factors when developing new bioinks. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Bioprinting has potential for regenerating damaged tissues; however, there are a limited number of printable biomaterials, and developing new bioinks is challenging because the required material physical properties for extrusion-based printing are not yet known. Most new bioinks are developed by trial-and-error, which is neither efficient nor comparable across materials. There is a need for the field to begin utilizing standard methods proposed by a few pioneering studies to characterize new bioinks. Therefore, we have developed the printability of a hyaluronic acid based-hydrogel and characterized the material with three quantitative rheological tests. The current work impacts the bioprinting field by demonstrating and encouraging the use of universal bioink characterizations and by providing printability windows to advance new bioink development.

Epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk influences cellular behavior in a 3D alveolus-fibroblast model system.

Interactions between lung epithelium and interstitial fibroblasts are increasingly recognized as playing a major role in the progression of several lung pathologies, including cancer. Three-dimensional in vitro co-culture systems offer tissue-relevant platforms to study the signaling interplay between diseased and healthy cell types. Such systems provide a controlled environment in which to probe the mechanisms involved in epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk. To recapitulate the native alveolar tissue architecture, we employed a cyst templating technique to culture alveolar epithelial cells on photodegradable microspheres and subsequently encapsulated the cell-laden spheres within poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels containing dispersed pulmonary fibroblasts. A fibroblast cell line (CCL-210) was co-cultured with either healthy mouse alveolar epithelial primary cells or a cancerous alveolar epithelial cell line (A549) to probe the influence of tumor-stromal interactions on proliferation, migration, and matrix remodeling. In 3D co-culture, cancerous epithelial cells and fibroblasts had higher proliferation rates. When examining fibroblast motility, the fibroblasts migrated faster when co-cultured with cancerous A549 cells. Finally, a fluorescent peptide reporter for matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity revealed increased MMP activity when A549s and fibroblasts were co-cultured. When MMP activity was inhibited or when cells were cultured in gels with a non-degradable crosslinker, fibroblast migration was dramatically suppressed, and the increase in cancer cell proliferation in co-culture was abrogated. Together, this evidence supports the idea that there is an exchange between the alveolar epithelium and surrounding fibroblasts during cancer progression that depends on MMP activity and points to potential signaling routes that merit further investigation to determine targets for cancer treatment.

Cartilage extracellular matrix as a biomaterial for cartilage regeneration.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) of various tissues possesses the model characteristics that biomaterials for tissue engineering strive to mimic; however, owing to the intricate hierarchical nature of the ECM, it has yet to be fully characterized and synthetically fabricated. Cartilage repair remains a challenge because the intrinsic properties that enable its durability and long-lasting function also impede regeneration. In the last decade, cartilage ECM has emerged as a promising biomaterial for regenerating cartilage, partly because of its potentially chondroinductive nature. As this research area of cartilage matrix-based biomaterials emerged, investigators facing similar challenges consequently developed convergent solutions in constructing robust and bioactive scaffolds. This review discusses the challenges, emerging trends, and future directions of cartilage ECM scaffolds, including a comparison between two different forms of cartilage matrix: decellularized cartilage (DCC) and devitalized cartilage (DVC). To overcome the low permeability of cartilage matrix, physical fragmentation greatly enhances decellularization, although the process itself may reduce the chondroinductivity of fabricated scaffolds. The less complex processing of a scaffold composed of DVC, which has not been decellularized, appears to have translational advantages and potential chondroinductive and mechanical advantages over DCC, without detrimental immunogenicity, to ultimately enhance cartilage repair in a clinically relevant way.

Chondroinductive Hydrogel Pastes Composed of Naturally Derived Devitalized Cartilage.

Hydrogel precursors are liquid solutions that are prone to leaking from the defect site once implanted in vivo. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to create a hydrogel precursor that exhibited a yield stress. Additionally, devitalized cartilage extracellular matrix (DVC) was mixed with DVC that had been solubilized and methacrylated (MeSDVC) to create hydrogels that were chondroinductive. Precursors composed of 10% MeSDVC or 10% MeSDVC with 10% DVC were first evaluated rheologically, where non-Newtonian behavior was observed in all hydrogel precursors. Rat bone marrow stem cells (rBMSCs) were mixed in the precursor solutions, and the solutions were then crosslinked and cultured in vitro for 6 weeks with and without exposure to human transforming growth factor ß3 (TGF-ß3). The compressive modulus, gene expression, biochemical content, swelling, and histology of the gels were analyzed. The DVC-containing gels consistently outperformed the MeSDVC-only group in chondrogenic gene expression, especially at 6 weeks, where the relative collagen II expression of the DVC-containing groups with and without TGF-ß3 exposure was 40- and 78-fold higher, respectively, than that of MeSDVC alone. Future work will test for chondrogenesis in vivo and overall, these two cartilage-derived components are promising materials for cartilage tissue engineering applications.