miRNA Expression Profiling in Human Breast Cancer Diagnostics and Therapy.

Breast cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancer types worldwide. Regarding molecular characteristics and classification, it is a heterogeneous disease, which makes it more challenging to diagnose. As is commonly known, early detection plays a pivotal role in decreasing mortality and providing a better prognosis for all patients. Different treatment strategies can be adjusted based on tumor progression and molecular characteristics, including personalized therapies. However, dealing with resistance to drugs and recurrence is a challenge. The therapeutic options are limited and can still lead to poor clinical outcomes. This review aims to shed light on the current perspective on the role of miRNAs in breast cancer diagnostics, characteristics, and prognosis. We discuss the potential role of selected non-coding RNAs most commonly associated with breast cancer. These include miR-21, miR-106a, miR-155, miR-141, let-7c, miR-335, miR-126, miR-199a, miR-101, and miR-9, which are perceived as potential biomarkers in breast cancer prognosis, diagnostics, and treatment response monitoring. As miRNAs differ in expression levels in different types of cancer, they may provide novel cancer therapy strategies. However, some limitations regarding dynamic alterations, tissue-specific profiles, and detection methods must also be raised.

The Role of Telomerase in Breast Cancer's Response to Therapy.

Currently, breast cancer appears to be the most widespread cancer in the world and the most common cause of cancer deaths. This specific type of cancer affects women in both developed and developing countries. Prevention and early diagnosis are very important factors for good prognosis. A characteristic feature of cancer cells is the ability of unlimited cell division, which makes them immortal. Telomeres, which are shortened with each cell division in normal cells, are rebuilt in cancer cells by the enzyme telomerase, which is expressed in more than 85% of cancers (up to 100% of adenocarcinomas, including breast cancer). Telomerase may have different functions that are related to telomeres or unrelated. It has been shown that high activity of the enzyme in cancer cells is associated with poor cell sensitivity to therapies. Therefore, telomerase has become a potential target for cancer therapies. The low efficacy of therapies has resulted in the search for new combined and more effective therapeutic methods, including the involvement of telomerase inhibitors and telomerase-targeted immunotherapy.

Vitamin C as a Modulator of the Response to Cancer Therapy.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) has been gaining attention as a potential treatment for human malignancies. Various experimental studies have shown the ability of pharmacological doses of vitamin C alone or in combinations with clinically used drugs to exert beneficial effects in various models of human cancers. Cytotoxicity of high doses of vitamin C in cancer cells appears to be related to excessive reactive oxygen species generation and the resulting suppression of the energy production via glycolysis. A hallmark of cancer cells is a strongly upregulated aerobic glycolysis, which elevates its relative importance as a source of ATP (Adenosine 5'-triphosphate). Aerobic glycolysis is maintained by a highly increased uptake of glucose, which is made possible by the upregulated expression of its transporters, such as GLUT-1, GLUT-3, and GLUT-4. These proteins can also transport the oxidized form of vitamin C, dehydroascorbate, permitting its preferential uptake by cancer cells with the subsequent depletion of critical cellular reducers as a result of ascorbate formation. Ascorbate also has a potential to affect other aspects of cancer cell metabolism due to its ability to promote reduction of iron(III) to iron(II) in numerous cellular metalloenzymes. Among iron-dependent dioxygenases, important targets for stimulation by vitamin C in cancer include prolyl hydroxylases targeting the hypoxia-inducible factors HIF-1/HIF-2 and histone and DNA demethylases. Altered metabolism of cancer cells by vitamin C can be beneficial by itself and promote activity of specific drugs.

Telomerase and drug resistance in cancer.

It is well known that a decreased expression or inhibited activity of telomerase in cancer cells is accompanied by an increased sensitivity to some drugs (e.g., doxorubicin, cisplatin, or 5-fluorouracil). However, the mechanism of the resistance resulting from telomerase alteration remains elusive. There are theories claiming that it might be associated with telomere shortening, genome instability, hTERT translocation, mitochondria functioning modulation, or even alterations in ABC family gene expression. However, association of those mechanisms, i.e., drug resistance and telomerase alterations, is not fully understood yet. We review the current theories on the aspect of the role of telomerase in cancer cells resistance to therapy. We believe that revealing/unravelling this correlation might significantly contribute to an increased efficiency of cancer cells elimination, especially the most difficult ones, i.e., drug resistant.

Co-occurrence of Jalili syndrome and muscular overgrowth.

Jalili syndrome is a rare disorder inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern manifesting as a combination of cone-rod dystrophy including progressive loss of visual acuity, color blindness, photophobia, and amelogenesis imperfecta with hypoplastic, immature, or hypocalcified dental enamel. It is caused by mutations in CNNM4, which encodes the ancient conserved domain protein 4. Here we report three brothers with Jalili syndrome and muscle overgrowth of the legs. Myopathic changes were found in needle electromyography. Mutational analysis showed in all three brothers a novel likely pathogenic homozygous missense substitution in exon 1 (c.1076T>C, p.(Leu359Pro)) of CNNM4. Both parents were carriers for the variant. In order to exclude other causative variants that could modify the patients' phenotype we performed exome sequencing and MLPA analysis of the DMD gene in Patient 1. These analyses did not identify any additional variants. Our results expand the mutational spectrum associated with Jalili syndrome and suggest that mild myopathy with muscle overgrowth of the legs could be a newly identified manifestation of the disorder.

Comparison of bone and chronological age in different types of primary and secondary palate clefts.

BACKGROUND: The ability to correctly assess the patient's bone age is an important element that allows correct diagnosis and proper planning of the start of orthodontic treatment. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to estimate bone age in children with congenital craniofacial defects - primary and secondary palate cleft. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The analysis covered lateral head images of 45 patients 8 to 15 years old with different types of cleft (primary and secondary palate cleft, bilateral, right or left unilateral). The patients' bone age was assessed by means of the Cervical Stage method (CS). The correlation between the bone age and chronological age was defined with the division into male and female patients. RESULTS: The results showed the relationship between the skeletal age and chronological age by gender and cleft type (the differences between the types of clefts by gender were presented). The correlation rate between the values of variables was defined. CONCLUSIONS: The chronological age of children with developmental craniofacial defects (primary and secondary palate cleft) in relation to the stages of skeletal development, indicates a difference of about one year in plus and that fact should be taken into account when choosing orthodontic treatment.

Eating habits of patients with cleft lip and palate terated with fixed appliances.

INTRODUCTION: Health education, built on the basis of various models as a lifelong process, has a considerable impact on eating habits. Correct nutritional patterns are particularly important during the period of intense growth and adolescence. The need to observe dietary recommendations concerns healthy, as well as sick persons, especially those with chronic diseases. To-date the data on the dietary habits of patients with cleft lip and palate during orthodontic treatment have been scarce. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: The objective of the study was to determine the eating habits of patients with cleft lip and palate before and during orthodontic treatment with a fixed appliance. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The study covered 125 patients with cleft lip and palate, aged 14 to 31. The research tool was an own questionnaire assessing the dietary behaviour and oral hygiene habits during the treatment with a fixed orthodontic appliance. RESULTS: In the course of the orthodontic treatment with a fixed appliance, 79 patients (57.6%) did not change their eating patterns and 32 patients (24%) changed them to a moderate degree. The mean of 53 patients (42.7%) changed their hygienic habits considerably. The number of meals remained the same, however in the period when patients suffered pain after orthodontic adjustment appointments, the number of persons having 4-5 meals a day decreased by 32%. It is worth considering that no statistically significant changes were recorded as regards the habit of having sweet snacks and the insufficient consumption of fruit and vegetables. Difficulties with correct oral hygiene were reported after the consumption of e.g. spinach (59.8%), cucumber (57.6%), berries (54.4%), meat (58.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Eating habits of a considerable percentage of patients with a cleft defect, before or during the treatment with a fixed appliance, do not comply with healthy nutrition recommendations. The dietary education of patients undergoing orthodontic treatment is necessary to ensure proper oral health and prevent diet-related illnesses.

[Methods of preparation of the platelet-rich plasma used in medicine as an accelerator of tissue regeneration]. / Metody otrzymywania osocza bogatoplytkowego wykorzystywanego w medycynie jako preparat przyspieszajacy regeneracje tkanek.

Platelet rich plasma is being increasingly used in the modem medicine as a material, stimulating regeneration and accelerating tissue healing. Platelet rich plasma is an autologous platelet concentrate, which is obtained from the peripheral blood of the patient. The method of extraction is based on the isolation of platelets during centrifugation of the whole blood, drew on anticoagulant. With the difference in density between the various cellular components of blood, such as red blood cells, buffy coat and platelet poor plasma, the separation into individual fractions is possible. At the present moment no optimal method of preparation of the platelet rich plasma has been found. On the market there are a number of commercial collection systems available, differing from each other in centrifugation parameters, type of container to which blood is collected and anticogulant used. Unfortunately, this can lead to obtaining platelet rich plasma with a varying number of platelets, leukocytes and resulting in a different concentration of growth factors. This is important, because the studies show, that a positive clinical effect depends on the quality of the used platelet-rich plasma.

Alternative Therapies in Transplantology as a Promising Perspective in Medicine.

Despite continuous and rapid progress in the transplantation of cells, tissues, and organs, many patients die before receiving them. This is because of an insufficient number of donors, which leads to a significant disproportion between the need for donors and their availability. This review aims to present the possibilities offered by alternative therapies. We use the term "functional transplantology" to describe such alternative methods of transplantation that could help change the current state of transplantation medicine. Its purpose is not to replace a defective or removed organ with another but to replace its functions using complementary biological, mechanical, or biomechanical structures or devices. Implementation of many innovative solutions shown in the work for clinical applications is already a fact. In the case of others, it should be considered a future vision. We hope that the role of a defective or damaged tissue or a group of tissues will be taken over by different structures that are functionally complementary with the organ being substituted. Undoubtedly, developing the described methods based on functional transplantology will change the face of transplantation medicine. Thus, we show current trends and new directions of thinking and actions in transplantation medicine that combine technology and transplantology. The review considers the latest technologies, including 3D bioprinting, nanotechnology, cell encapsulation, and organoids. We discuss not only the advantages of new approaches but also the limitations and challenges that must be overcome to achieve significant progress in transplantation. That is the only option to provide a safe and efficient way of improving the quality of life of many patients.

[Tumor markers used in the diagnosis, monitoring, treatment, and prognosis head and neck cancer]. / Markery nowotworowe stosowane w diagnostyce, monitorowaniu leczenia i prognozowaniu nowotworów glowy i szyi.

UNLABELLED: Cancer is currently the second to heart disease and vascular cause of death and observed tends to increase the number of cases. The cause of high mortality from cancer it is too late malignant diagnosis. In the case of head and neck cancers at diagnosis in about 40% of patients found to have metastatic lymph nodes within. Therefore, an important issue for modem oncology is the early diagnosis of the disease cancer. Currently high hopes for the early detection and diagnosis of treatmen cancer is put in simple, accessible and low-cost testing to determine the biochemical tumor markers. THE AIM OF THE STUDY was to examine the latest reports on biochemical markers useful in cancer diagnosis, disease staging, prognosis and monitoring the treatment of the most common cancers of the head and neck. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The material consisted of references of the last 17 years. Criterion search accounted for password: biochemical tumor markers, diagnostics, monitoring treatment of cancer. 10 of 90 works were selected to examine. CONCLUSIONS: Usefulness of biochemical tumor markers in monitoring course of the disease and evaluation of treatment effectiveness was demonstrated. In combination with other diagnostic methods as they apply to screening, as well as in the detection of cancer in the study population.

[Serum level of selected chemokines in systemic lupus erythematosus patients taking into consideration the peripheral blood leukocyte counts]. / Stezenie wybranych chemokin u chorych na toczen rumieniowaty ukladowy z uwzglednieniem liczby leukocytów we krwi obwodoweJ.

UNLABELLED: Chemokines promote leukocyte traffic into the site of inflammation. It depends on the repertoire of chemokines synthesized locally, and the temporal expression of chemokine receptors on leukocytes among them lymphocytes B and T which play crucial role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases for example in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). RANTES (regulated upon activation in normal T cells expressed and secreted) is chemokine influencing T cells and BLC 1 (B-lymphocyte chemoattractant 1) is chemokine which affects B cells. The aim of the study was to evaluate serum concentration of the above mentioned chemokines in treated SLE patients and to analyze the relationships between their concentration in patients group and the control one. Another aim of our study was to assess the relationships between serum levels of these chemokines and the total peripheral blood leukocyte count and between serum levels of these chemokines and absolute peripheral blood counts of the individual forms of these cells in SLE patients. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Serum levels of RANTES and BLC 1 were determined in 48 treated women with SLE and mild-to-moderate disease severity. The results were compared between the total SLE group and the control (29 healthy women). The correlation between chemokines and between their levels and peripheral blood leukocyte count were evaluated. The relationships between the analyzed chemokines were also determined in the control group. RESULTS: Lower level of RANTES in serum was revealed in patients with SLE compared to the control and the tendency to higher concentration of BLC 1 in serum was observed. No relationships were observed between the levels of these chemokines both in the SLE patients and in the control group. Whereas the negative correlations between BLC 1 and total leukocyte count and BLC 1 and absolute number of neutrophils were found without such correlation between BLC 1 the subgroup of patients with concomitant neutropenia. CONCLUSION: We suggest that in treated patients with SLE lowered level of RANTES and tendency to higher level of BLC 1 is observed which have not any connections with the peripheral blood leukocyte counts and individual forms of these cells counts.

High concentration of urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor in the serum of women with primary breast cancer.

AIM OF THE STUDY: The purpose of this study was to assess the concentration of urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) in the serum of 103 women with breast cancer. Commonly recognized prognostic factors were taken into account, including age, histological grade of malignancy, stage of clinical advancement of the disease, status of local axillary lymph nodes and the size of the primary tumour. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The concentration of uPAR was assessed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (R&D Systems). RESULTS: The concentration of uPAR in women with breast cancer was found to be higher than in a control group and the difference was statistically significant. The concentration of uPAR was found to increase in line with increasing disease stage and this too was of statistical significance. Raised levels of uPAR were found in women with breast cancer both with and without metastases to the lymph nodes of the axilla. A positive relationship was also found between the concentration of the tested receptor and the size of the primary tumour. No significant relationship, however, was found between the concentration of uPAR and the histological grade of malignancy of the tumour. No statistically significant results were obtained regarding the menopausal status of the women, that is, whether they were pre- or post-menopausal. CONCLUSIONS: Concentration of uPAR in serum of women with breast cancer is positively correlated with the stage of advancement of the disease. Thus, the assessment of this parameter can be useful in the clinical evaluation of women with breast cancer.

Causes, symptoms and prevention of food allergy.

Currently, food allergy is considered to be one of the diseases of civilization, which occurs as a result of the changing conditions of life and environmental changes (e.g. increased popularity of cesarean delivery, excessive hygienic regime during the neonatal-infantile period). Based on medical statistics, it can be concluded that this problem will be intensified. Consumption of food is one of the main activities in human life. What and how one eats affects our health. Meals eaten regularly provide the components necessary for the energy metabolism. Multicultural society, travel, and new trends affect the diversity of food consumed. The mechanism of food allergy reaction covers all 4 types of the immune response of the classical division of Gell and Coombs. The percentage of the immune response was assessed by Chandra as follows: type I - 48%, type II - 6%, type III - 10%, and type IV - 18%. The article presents the risk factors for food allergy, most common symptoms, preventive measures and characteristics of food products that are potential allergens.

Doxorubicin and Cisplatin Modulate miR-21, miR-106, miR-126, miR-155 and miR-199 Levels in MCF7, MDA-MB-231 and SK-BR-3 Cells That Makes Them Potential Elements of the DNA-Damaging Drug Treatment Response Monitoring in Breast Cancer Cells-A Preliminary Study.

One of the most innovative medical trends is personalized therapy, based on simple and reproducible methods that detect unique features of cancer cells. One of the good prognostic and diagnostic markers may be the miRNA family. Our work aimed to evaluate changes in selected miRNA levels in various breast cancer cell lines (MCF7, MDA-MB-231, SK-BR-3) treated with doxorubicin or cisplatin. The selection was based on literature data regarding the most commonly altered miRNAs in breast cancer (21-3p, 21-5p, 106a-5p, 126-3p, 126-5p, 155-3p, 155-5p, 199b-3p, 199b-5p, 335-3p, 335-5p). qPCR assessment revealed significant differences in the basal levels of some miRNAs in respective cell lines, with the most striking difference in miR-106a-5p, miR-335-5p and miR-335-3p-all of them were lowest in MCF7, while miR-153p was not detected in SK-BR-3. Additionally, different alterations of selected miRNAs were observed depending on the cell line and the drug. However, regardless of these variables, 21-3p/-5p, 106a, 126-3p, 155-3p and 199b-3p miRNAs were shown to respond either to doxorubicin or to cisplatin treatment. These miRNAs seem to be good candidates for markers of breast cancer cell response to doxorubicin or cisplatin. Especially since some earlier reports suggested their role in affecting pathways and expression of genes associated with the DNA-damage response. However, it must be emphasized that the preliminary study shows effects that may be highly related to the applied drug itself and its concentration. Thus, further examination, including human samples, is required.

Changes in the masticatory organ in patients with Recklinghausen's disease - a case report.

In the report the authors present changes in the masticatory organ in the case of a 9-year-old girl affected with Recklinghausen's disease. The characteristics included neurofibromatosis of the face, salivary gland and external ear in the form of an extensive tumour. The disease also resulted in acute right hemifacial hypertrophy. The computer-assisted tomography examination identified acute atrophy of the zygomatic bone, maxilla, mandible alveolar ridge and right base of the skull. The clinical intraoral examination of the patient revealed right buccal occlusion and lingual occlusion on the opposite side. The patient underwent functional orthodontic treatment of the co-existing malocclusion with an orthodontic appliance for the upper and lower jaw which was to prevent further mandible movement towards the right. According to researchers, neoplasia is an inherent characteristic of a phenotype seen in patients suffering from Recklinghausen's disease. Therefore, it is the main factor influencing the selection of a therapy. Although there are certain single attempts of pharmacological treatment of ganglioneurofibromas at their early development stage, it is agreed that, in fact, no preventive actions are possible. Hence, in the case of neurofibromatosis type 1, reconstruction and aesthetic procedures are widely applied in treating the disease.

hTERT Downregulation Attenuates Resistance to DOX, Impairs FAK-Mediated Adhesion, and Leads to Autophagy Induction in Breast Cancer Cells.

Telomerase is known to contribute to telomere maintenance and to provide cancer cell immortality. However, numerous reports are showing that the function of the enzyme goes far beyond chromosome ends. The study aimed to explore how telomerase downregulation in MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells affects their ability to survive. Consequently, sensitivity to drug resistance, proliferation, and adhesion were assessed. The lentiviral-mediated human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) downregulation efficiency was performed at gene expression and protein level using qPCR and Western blot, respectively. Telomerase activity was evaluated using the Telomeric Repeat Amplification Protocol (TRAP) assay. The study revealed that hTERT downregulation led to an increased sensitivity of breast cancer cells to doxorubicin which was demonstrated in MTT and clonogenic assays. During a long-term doubling time assessment, a decreased population doubling level was observed. Interestingly, it did not dramatically affect cell cycle distribution. hTERT downregulation was accompanied by an alteration in ß1-integrin- and by focal adhesion kinase (FAK)-driven pathways together with the reduction of target proteins phosphorylation, i.e., paxillin and c-Src. Additionally, autophagy activation was observed in MDA-MB-231 cells manifested by alternations in Atg5, Beclin 1, LC3II/I ratio, and p62. These results provide new evidence supporting the possible therapeutic potential of telomerase downregulation leading to induction of autophagy and cancer cells elimination.

[The thyroid functional tests, antithyroid antibodies and the level of prolactin in treated patients with systemic lupus erythematosus]. / Testy czynnosciowe tarczycy, przeciwciala przeciwtarczycowe i stezenie prolaktyny u leczonych chorych na toczen rumieniowaty ukladowy.

UNLABELLED: The relationships between different autoimmune diseases and among them the connections between systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and autoimmune thyroid diseases have been reported for a few years. The aim of this study is the assessment of the laboratory tests findings which are applied in the evaluation of the thyroid function and prolactin (PRL) concentration in serum in women with SLE during therapy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In 41 women with SLE treated in the period of a few months to several years the following laboratory tests were performed: the concentration of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), PRL and free triiodothyronine (fT3) and free thyroxine (fT4) levels were measured by chemiluminescence technique, anithyroid antibodies (anti-thyroperoxidase - anti-TPO, and anti-thyroglobulin - anti TG) were tested by immunofluorescence assay. The control group consisted of 17 healthy women of a similar age to the SLE patients. RESULTS: The levels of fT3 and fT4 were statistically significantly lower in SLE patients comparing to the controls but the arithmetic means for the whole investigated patients were within the range of laboratory limits for these hormones. Considering other parameters no statistical differences between the mean values were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that fT3 and fT4 concentrations are lower in SLE treated women with small and mild disease activity compared to the controls with the mean arithmetic values for the total group of patients which is within the laboratory limits for these hormones. Furthermore, the results seem to support the tendency of connections between the detection of antithyroid antibodies with higher level of serum PRL in SLE treated patients.

Vocal training in an anthropometrical aspect.

OBJECTIVES: As shown in our previous paper, the dimensions of the cerebral parts of the cranium and face of the vocal students were higher than those of the non-singing students. The aim of the present study was to analyse the type of voice and its development depending on selected dimensions. METHODS: A total of 56 vocal students - 36 women and 20 men - who underwent anthropometric measurements were divided into groups according to their voice type. Two professors of singing made a subjective, independent evaluation of individual students' vocal development progress during the four years of training. The findings were analysed statistically with the current licensed versions of Statistica software. RESULTS: We found statistically significant positive correlation between: the head length, head and face width, depth of upper and middle face, nose length and student's voice development. CONCLUSIONS: The dimensions of the head and the face have no impact on type of voice; however, some anatomical characteristics may have impact on voice development.

Analysis of skeletal maturity of children with cleft palate in terms of healthy children by the CVM method.

BACKGROUND: For many years, the analysis of bone age X-rays have been used for the hand and wrist, which were assessed on the basis of changes in the various centers of ossification. These images, however, do not constitute a diagnostic element of cleft defects, leading to additional exposure of the patient to X-rays. The problem was solved by using lateral head films, which enabled the interpretation of the morphological changes in the cervical spine to evaluate skeletal development stages. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this work is to define the differences between the skeletal age and chronological age of children with malocclusion and congenital craniofacial disorders - primary and secondary palate cleft. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study material comprised 90 lateral cephalometric radiographs of patients at the age of 7 to 16 (45 lateral head radiographs of patients with various occlusion disorders and 45 lateral head radiographs of patients with various types of primary and secondary palate cleft). Then, all the lateral cephalometric radiographs were analysed in terms of the shape of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th cervical vertebra in line with the Cervical Stage method (CS), developed by Baccetti et al. in 2005. RESULTS: Patients with malocclusions without malformations achieved various stages of bone development at an earlier chronological age compared with patients with primary and secondary palate. An exception was the phase CS 3 (early growth spurt) development disorders, in which patients with different types of cleft had lower chronological age compared with patients with malocclusion. CONCLUSIONS: The method that allows for an assessment of the development of skeletal maturity is the analysis of the shape of the cervical vertebrae in lateral head film.

Telomere shortening in Down syndrome patients--when does it start?

Down syndrome (DS) is one of the most common aneuploidy. In general population, its prevalence is 1:600-1:800 live births. It is caused by a trisomy of chromosome 21. DS is phenotypically manifested by premature aging, upward slant to the eyes, epicanthus, flattened face, and poor muscle tone. In addition to physical changes, this syndrome is characterized by early onset of diseases specific to old age, such as Alzheimer's disease, vision and hearing problems, and precocious menopause. Since DS symptoms include premature aging, the shortening of telomeres might be one of the markers of cellular aging. Consequently, the aim of the study was to determine the length of the telomeres in leukocytes from the blood of juvenile patients with DS (n=68) compared to an age-matched control group (n=56) and also to determine the diagnostic or predictive value for this parameter. We show that, for the first time, in juveniles, the average relative telomere length in studied subjects is significantly longer than in the control group (50.46 vs. 40.56, respectively arbitrary units [AU]; p=0.0026). The results provide interesting basis for further research to determine the causes and consequences of telomere maintaining and the dynamics of this process in patients with DS.