Chitosan-Clay Mineral Nanocomposites with Antibacterial Activity for Biomedical Application: Advantages and Future Perspectives.

Polymers of natural origin, such as representatives of various polysaccharides (e.g., cellulose, dextran, hyaluronic acid, gellan gum, etc.), and their derivatives, have a long tradition in biomedical applications. Among them, the use of chitosan as a safe, biocompatible, and environmentally friendly heteropolysaccharide has been particularly intensively researched over the last two decades. The potential of using chitosan for medical purposes is reflected in its unique cationic nature, viscosity-increasing and gel-forming ability, non-toxicity in living cells, antimicrobial activity, mucoadhesiveness, biodegradability, as well as the possibility of chemical modification. The intuitive use of clay minerals in the treatment of superficial wounds has been known in traditional medicine for thousands of years. To improve efficacy and overcome the ubiquitous bacterial resistance, the beneficial properties of chitosan have been utilized for the preparation of chitosan-clay mineral bionanocomposites. The focus of this review is on composites containing chitosan with montmorillonite and halloysite as representatives of clay minerals. This review highlights the antibacterial efficacy of chitosan-clay mineral bionanocomposites in drug delivery and in the treatment of topical skin infections and wound healing. Finally, an overview of the preparation, characterization, and possible future perspectives related to the use of these advancing composites for biomedical applications is presented.

Development of hydrophilic gels containing coenzyme Q10-loaded liposomes: characterization, stability and rheology measurements.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to develop, characterize and evaluate stability of a gel containing coenzyme Q10 (Q10)-loaded liposomes, and enhance the stability of Q10 in the nanocarrier-containing gel compared to the conventional gel. METHODS: Q10-loaded liposome dispersions prepared from unsaturated or saturated lecithin, were characterized for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta-potential, pH value, oxidation index, Q10-content and morphology, and incorporated into carbomer gel. Liposome gels and liposome-free gel were analyzed for flow properties, pH values, Q10-content, and liposomes size and PDI (liposome gels), 48 h after preparation and in predetermined time intervals during 6 months storage at different temperatures in order to predict their long term stability. RESULTS: Liposomes were of small particle size, homogeneous, negatively charged, and their incorporation into gel did not significantly change (p > .05) their particle size and PDI. All gels revealed non-Newtonian, shear-thinning plastic flow behavior during storage with no marked changes in rheological parameters. Storage of gels did not significantly influence the pH value (p > .05), while it significantly decreased Q10-content (p < .05). Q10 was significantly more (p < .05) stable in liposome gel containing unsaturated lecithin liposomes (G1) than in gel containing saturated lecithin liposomes (G2) and liposome-free gel (G3). CONCLUSIONS: Q10-loaded liposome gel G1 was the optimal formulation, since during storage at different temperatures, it did not show significant increase in liposome size and PDI, it provided significantly higher stability for Q10 than other gels and its pH value was suitable for skin application. Due to limited Q10-stability it should be stored at 4 °C.

Synergism of polysaccharide polymers in antihistamine eye drops: Influence on physicochemical properties and in vivo efficacy.

The incorporation of polymers into drug delivery vehicles has been shown to be a useful approach to prolong the residence time of drugs in the precorneal tear film and to improve penetration into biological membranes. The main objective of this research was to formulate novel viscous eye drops with ketotifen as the active ingredient, containing the polysaccharides: chitosan (MCH), hydroxypropyl guar gum (HPG) and hyaluronic acid (SH) alone and in combination as functional polymers. DSC and FT-IR techniques showed the compatibility between ketotifen and polymers. Physicochemical and rheological analysis at ambient and simulated physiological conditions, as well as the evaluation of mucoadhesive properties showed that vehicles containing combinations of polymers have suitable physicochemical and functional properties with demonstrated synergism between combined polymers (MCH and HPG i.e. SH and HPG). The drug permeability was successfully estimated in vitro using HCE-T cell-based models. MTT cytotoxicity assay demonstrates that the tested formulations were non-toxic and well tolerated. In vivo preclinical study on mice revealed that both vehicles containing mixed polymers enhanced and prolonged the antipruritic/analgesic-like effect of ophthalmic ketotifen. Based on these results, both combinations of polysaccharide polymers, especially SH-HPG, could be considered as potential new carriers for ketotifen for ophthalmic use.

Chitosan oligosaccharide as prospective cross-linking agent for naproxen-loaded Ca-alginate microparticles with improved pH sensitivity.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the presented work was to develop Ca-alginate microparticles for oral administration of naproxen reinforced with chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) with a special interest to examine the potential of COS for improvement of microparticles stability in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF). METHOD: Microparticles were prepared according to the two-step procedure using an air-jet device with varying calcium chloride and COS concentration in the gelling medium. All prepared microparticles were subjected to size determination, morphology, surface, and inner structure analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), drug loading (DL) and encapsulation efficiency (EE), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, in vitro swelling, and drug release studies. RESULTS: In general, COS-treated microparticles were spherical in shape but somewhat deformed, exhibiting the surface roughness with the mean particle size less than 350 µm. FT-IR and DSC studies confirmed the formation of polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) between alginate and COS, whereas chemical properties and crystalline state of naproxen were unaffected by the encapsulation process. Low naproxen solubility in the gelling medium and rapid entrapment resulted in high encapsulation efficiency (>80.0%). The results of swelling studies demonstrated that COS-treated particles were less sensitive to swelling and erosion in SIF in comparison to the nontreated particles. This resulted in prolonged drug release in SIF, which was dependent on the COS/alginate ratio. CONCLUSION: The obtained findings proved that COS could be used as an effective cross-linking agent for improvement of Ca-alginate microparticles stability in SIF, allowing prolonged release of the encapsulated drug after oral administration.

Biopolymers in Mucoadhesive Eye Drops for Treatment of Dry Eye and Allergic Conditions: Application and Perspectives.

Dry eye syndrome and allergic conjunctivitis are the most common inflammatory disorders of the eye surface. Although eye drops are the most usual prescribed dosage form, they are characterized by low ocular availability due to numerous barrier mechanisms of the eye. The use of biopolymers in liquid ophthalmic preparations has numerous advantages, such as increasing the viscosity of the tear film, exhibiting bioadhesive properties, and resisting the drainage system, leading to prolonged retention of the preparation at the site of application, and improvement of the therapeutic effect. Some mucoadhesive polymers are multifunctional excipients, so they act by different mechanisms on increasing the permeability of the cornea. Additionally, many hydrophilic biopolymers can also represent the active substances in artificial tear preparations, due to their lubrication and moisturizing effect. With the modification of conventional ophthalmic preparations, there is a need for development of new methods for their characterization. Numerous methods for the assessment of mucoadhesiveness have been suggested by the literature. This review gives an overview related to the development of mucoadhesive liquid ophthalmic formulations for the treatment of dry eye and allergic conditions.

Nanoparticle-Based Adjuvants and Delivery Systems for Modern Vaccines.

Ever since the development of the first vaccine, vaccination has had the great impact on global health, leading to the decrease in the burden of numerous infectious diseases. However, there is a constant need to improve existing vaccines and develop new vaccination strategies and vaccine platforms that induce a broader immune response compared to traditional vaccines. Modern vaccines tend to rely on certain nanotechnology platforms but are still expected to be readily available and easy for large-scale manufacturing and to induce a durable immune response. In this review, we present an overview of the most promising nanoadjuvants and nanoparticulate delivery systems and discuss their benefits from tehchnological and immunological standpoints as well as their objective drawbacks and possible side effects. The presented nano alums, silica and clay nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, adenoviral-vectored systems, adeno-associated viral vectors, vesicular stomatitis viral vectors, lentiviral vectors, virus-like particles (including bacteriophage-based ones) and virosomes indicate that vaccine developers can now choose different adjuvants and/or delivery systems as per the requirement, specific to combatting different infectious diseases.

Influence of selective acid-etching on functionality of halloysite-chitosan nanocontainers for sustained drug release.

The functionality of halloysite (Hal) nanotubes as drug carriers can be improved by lumen enlargement and polymer modification. This study investigates the influence of selective acid etching on Hal functionalization with cationic biopolymer chitosan. Hal was subjected to lumen etching under mild conditions, loaded under vacuum with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug aceclofenac, and incubated in an acidic solution of chitosan. The functionality of pristine and etched Hal before and upon polymer functionalization was assessed by ζ-potential measurements, structural characterization (FT-IR, DSC and XRPD analysis), cell viability assay, drug loading and drug release studies. Acid etching increased specific surface area, pore volume and pore size of Hal, decreased ζ-potential and facilitated binding of the cationic polymer. XRPD and DSC analysis revealed crystalline structure of etched Hal. Successful chitosan binding and drug entrapment were further confirmed by FT-IR and DSC studies. XRPD showed surface polymer binding. DSC and FT-IR analyses confirmed the presence of the entrapped drug in its crystalline form. Drug loading was increased for ≈81% by selective lumen etching. Slight decrease of drug content occurred during chitosan functionalization due to aceclofenac diffusion in the polymer solution. The drug release was more sustained from etched Hal nanocomposites (up to ≈87% for 12 h) than from pristine Hal (up to ≈97% for 12 h) due to more intensive chitosan binding. High human fibroblast survival rates upon exposure to pristine and etched Hal before and after chitosan functionalization (>90% in the concentration of 1000 µg/mL) confirmed that both lumen etching under mild conditions and polymer functionalization had no significant effect on cytocompatibility. Based on these findings, selective lumen etching in combination with polycation modification appears to be a promising approach for improvement of Hal nanotubes functionality by increasing payload, polymer binding capacity, and sustained release properties with no significant effect on their cytocompatibility.

Formulation of olopatadine hydrochloride viscous eye drops - physicochemical, biopharmaceutical and efficacy assessment using in vitro and in vivo approaches.

The aim of this work was the formulation and the comprehensive evaluation of the viscous eye drops using vehicles containing medium chain chitosan (0.5% w/v), hydroxypropyl guar gum (0.25% w/v) and their combination as carriers for olopatadine (0.1% w/v). Physicochemical properties (appearance, clarity, pH, osmolality, viscosity and drug content) of the tested formulations were within acceptable ranges for the ophthalmic preparations, while DSC and FT-IR techniques demonstrated the compatibility between olopatadine and polymers. The drug permeability was successfully estimated in vitro using both HCE-T cell-based models (Model I and Model II) and the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA), considering the impact of chitosan as a permeation enhancer. The MTT cytotoxicity assay demonstrates that the tested formulations (diluted 10-fold in HBSS pH 5.5) were non-toxic and well tolerated. An ocular itch test on mice was carried out with the formulation containing the combination of polymers comparable with a commercially available olopatadine eye drops without viscosity enhancers. The tested eye drops produced a slightly higher anti-pruritic/analgesic-like effect than the commercial preparation. It could be assumed that the use of this viscous ophthalmic vehicle due to its advanced mucoadhesive properties and good safety profile is a feasible strategy to improve the efficacy of olopatadine.

Stability evaluation of temoporfin-loaded liposomal gels for topical application.

Temoporfin (mTHPC) is a potent second-generation synthetic photosensitizer. Topical delivery of mTHPC is of great interest for the photodynamic therapy of psoriasis and superficial skin cancer lesions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the stability of hydrophilic gels containing mTHPC-loaded liposomes. Two different mTHPC-loaded liposome dispersions, composed of 15 % (w/w) nonhydrogenated soybean lecithin of different phosphatidylcholine content, were prepared and incorporated (2:1 w/w) into hydrogels of different carbomer concentrations (1.5, 2.25, and 3%; w/w). Obtained liposomal hydrogels, containing 0.15% (w/w) mTHPC, 10% (w/w) phospholipids, and 0, 0.5, or 1% (w/w) carbomer, were analyzed for flow properties, liposome particle size, and polydispersity index (PDI), pH value, and mTHPC content after their preparation and at predetermined time intervals during 6 months of storage at 4 and 23 degrees C. All hydrogels showed, during the whole period of investigation, adequate characteristics for topical application (i.e., they revealed shear-thinning plastic flow behavior). Rheological parameters, particle size, and PDI of liposomes in hydrogels, mTHPC content, and pH value did not show remarkable changes during the storage of gels, which could make them unacceptable for topical use. The obtained results indicated physical and chemical stability of liposomal gels containing mTHPC during 6 months of storage at both temperatures.

Cationic surfactants-modified natural zeolites: improvement of the excipients functionality.

CONTEXT: In this study an investigation of cationic surfactants-modified natural zeolites as drug formulation excipient was performed. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this work was to carry out a study of the purified natural zeolitic tuff with high amount of clinoptilolite as a potential carrier for molecules of pharmaceutical interest. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two cationic surfactants (benzalkonium chloride and hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide) were used for modification of the zeolitic surface in two levels (equal to and twice as external cation-exchange capacity of the zeolitic tuff). Prepared samples were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric, high-performance liquid chromatography analysis, and powder flow determination. Different surfactant/zeolite composites were used for additional investigation of three model drugs: diclofenac diethylamine, diclofenac sodium, and ibuprofen by means of adsorption isotherm measurements in aqueous solutions. RESULTS: The modified zeolites with two levels of surfactant coverage within the short activation time were prepared. Determination of flow properties showed that modification of zeolitic surface reflected on powder flow characteristics. Investigation of the model drugs adsorption on the obtained composites revealed that a variation between adsorption levels was influenced by the surfactant type and the amount present at the surface of the composites. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: In vitro release profiles of the drugs from the zeolite-surfactant-drug composites revealed that sustained drug release could be attained over a period of 8 hours. The presented results for drug uptake by surfactant-zeolite composites and the afterward drug release demonstrated the potential use of investigated modified natural zeolite as excipients for advanced excipients in drug formulations.

Technological Approaches for Improving Vaccination Compliance and Coverage.

Vaccination has been well recognised as a critically important tool in preventing infectious disease, yet incomplete immunisation coverage remains a major obstacle to achieving disease control and eradication. As medical products for global access, vaccines need to be safe, effective and inexpensive. In line with these goals, continuous improvements of vaccine delivery strategies are necessary to achieve the full potential of immunisation. Novel technologies related to vaccine delivery and route of administration, use of advanced adjuvants and controlled antigen release (single-dose immunisation) approaches are expected to contribute to improved coverage and patient compliance. This review discusses the application of micro- and nano-technologies in the alternative routes of vaccine administration (mucosal and cutaneous vaccination), oral vaccine delivery as well as vaccine encapsulation with the aim of controlled antigen release for single-dose vaccination.

Potentiation of the ibuprofen antihyperalgesic effect using inorganically functionalized diatomite.

Refined diatomite from the Kolubara coal basin (Serbia) was inorganically functionalized through a simple, one-pot, non-time-consuming procedure. Model drug ibuprofen was adsorbed on the functionalized diatomite under optimized conditions providing high drug loading (∼201 mg g-1). Physicochemical characterization was performed on the starting and modified diatomite before and after ibuprofen adsorption. Dissolution testing was conducted on comprimates containing the drug adsorbed on the modified diatomite (composite) and those containing a physical mixture of the drug with the modified diatomite. The antihyperalgesic and the antiedematous activity of ibuprofen from both composites and physical mixtures were evaluated in vivo employing an inflammatory pain model in rats. Functionalization and subsequent drug adsorption had no significant effect on the diatomite ordered porous structure. Two forms of ibuprofen most likely coexisted in the adsorbed state - the acidic form and a salt/complex with aluminium. Both comprimate types showed extended ibuprofen release in vitro, but no significant influence on the duration of the ibuprofen effect was observed upon in vivo application of the composite or physical mixture. However, both the composite and the physical mixture were more effective than equivalent doses of ibuprofen in pain suppression in rats. This potentiation of the ibuprofen antihyperalgesic effect may result from the formation of the drug complex with the carrier and can be of clinical relevance.

Adsorption of the mycotoxin zearalenone by clinoptilolite and phillipsite zeolites treated with cetylpyridinium surfactant.

In this study, organozeolites were prepared by treatment of the natural zeolites (clinoptilolite and phillipsite) with cetylpyridinium chloride (CP) equivalent to 50 and 100% of their external cation exchange capacities (ECEC). Organoclinoptilolites (ZCPs) and organophillipsites (PCPs) were characterized by FTIR spectroscopy, thermal analysis, determination of the point of zero charge and zeta potential. Adsorption of zearalenone (ZEN) by ZCPs and PCPs at pH 3 and 7 was investigated. Results showed that adsorption of ZEN increases with increasing amounts of CP at the zeolitic surfaces for both ZCPs and PCPs but the adsorption mechanism was different. Adsorption of ZEN by ZCPs followed a linear type of isotherm at pH 3 and 7 while ZEN adsorption by PCPs showed non linear (Langmuir and Freundlich) type of isotherm at both pH values. Different interactions between the ZEN molecule (or ion) and ZCPs and PCPs occurred: partition (linear isotherms) and adsorption in addition to partition (non linear isotherms), respectively. For the highest level of organic phase at the zeolitic surfaces, the maximum adsorbed amount of ZEN was 5.73mg/g for organoclinoptilolite and 6.86mg/g for organophillipsite at pH 3. Slightly higher adsorption: 6.98mg/g for organoclinoptilolite and 7.54mg/g for organophillipsite was achieved at pH 7. The results confirmed that CP ions at both zeolitic surfaces are responsible for ZEN adsorption and that organophillipsites are as effective in ZEN adsorption as organoclinoptilolites.

Characterization of gelation process and drug release profile of thermosensitive liquid lecithin/poloxamer 407 based gels as carriers for percutaneous delivery of ibuprofen.

Suitability of liquid lecithin (i.e., solution of lecithin in soy bean oil with ∼ 60% w/w of phospholipids) for formation of gels, upon addition of water solution of poloxamer 407, was investigated, and formulated systems were evaluated as carriers for percutaneous delivery of ibuprofen. Formulation study of pseudo-ternary system liquid lecithin/poloxamer 407/water at constant liquid lecithin/poloxamer 407 mass ratio (2.0) revealed that minimum concentrations of liquid lecithin and poloxamer 407 required for formation of gel like systems were 15.75% w/w and 13.13% w/w, respectively, while the maximum content of water was 60.62% w/w. The systems comprising water concentrations in a range from 55 to 60.62% w/w were soft semisolids suitable for topical application, and they were selected for physicochemical and biopharmaceutical evaluation. Analysis of conductivity results and light microscopy examination revealed that investigated systems were water dilutable dispersions of spherical oligolamellar associates of phospholipids and triglyceride molecules in the copolymer water solution. Rheological behavior evaluation results indicated that the investigated gels were thermosensitive shear thinning systems. Ibuprofen (5% w/w) was incorporated by dispersing into the previously prepared carriers. Drug-loaded systems were physically stable at storage temperature from 5 ± 3°C to 40 ± 2°C, for 30 days. In vitro ibuprofen release was in accordance with the Higuchi model (rH>0.95) and sustained for 12h. The obtained results implicated that formulated LLPBGs, optimized regarding drug release and organoleptic properties, represent promising carriers for sustained percutaneous drug delivery of poorly soluble drugs.

Modified local diatomite as potential functional drug carrier--A model study for diclofenac sodium.

Diatomite makes a promising candidate for a drug carrier because of its high porosity, large surface area, modifiable surface chemistry and biocompatibility. Herein, refined diatomite from Kolubara coal basin, which complied with the pharmacopoeial requirements for heavy metals content and microbiological quality, was used as a starting material. Inorganic modification of the starting material was performed through a simple, one-step procedure. Significant increase in adsorbent loading with diclofenac sodium (DS) was achieved after the modification process (∼373mg/g) which enabled the preparation of comprimates containing therapeutic dose of the adsorbed drug. Adsorption of DS onto modified diatomite resulted in the alteration of the drug's XRD pattern and FTIR spectrum. In vitro drug release studies in phosphate buffer pH 7.5 demonstrated prolonged DS release over 8h from comprimates containing DS adsorbed on modified diatomite (up to 37% after 8h) and those containing physical mixture of the same composition (up to 45% after 8h). The results of in vivo toxicity testing on mice pointed on potential safety of both unmodified (starting) and modified diatomite. All these findings favor the application of diatomite as a potential functional drug carrier.

Characterization of caprylocaproyl macrogolglycerides based microemulsion drug delivery vehicles for an amphiphilic drug.

Microemulsion systems composed of water, isopropyl myristate, PEG-8 caprylic/capric glycerides (Labrasol), and polyglyceryl-6 dioleate (Plurol Oleique), were investigated as potential drug delivery vehicles for an amphiphilic model drug (diclofenac diethylamine). Pseudo-ternary phase diagram of the investigated system, at constant surfactant/cosurfactant mass ratio (Km 4:1) was constructed at room temperature by titration, and the oil-to-surfactant/cosurfactant mass ratios (O/SC) that exhibit the maximum in the solubilization of water were found. This allowed the investigation of the continuous structural inversion from water-in-oil to oil-in-water microemulsions on dilution with water phase. Furthermore, electrical conductivity (sigma) of the system at Km 1:4, and O/SC 0.250 was studied, and the percolation phenomenon was observed. Conductivity and apparent viscosity (eta') measurement results well described colloidal microstructure of the selected formulations, including gradual changes during their formation. Moreover, sigma, eta', and pH values of six selected microemulsion vehicles which differ in water phase volume fraction (phi(w)) at the selected Km and O/SC values, were measured. In order to investigate the influence of the amphiphilic drug on the vehicle microstructures, each system was formulated with 1.16% (w/w) diclofenac diethylamine. Electrical conductivity, and eta' of the investigated systems were strongly affected by drug incorporation. The obtained results suggest that diclofenac diethylamine interacts with the specific microstructure of the investigated vehicles, and that the different drug release kinetics from these microemulsions may be expected. The investigated microemulsions should be very interesting as new drug carrier systems for dermal application of diclofenac diethylamine.

Application of artificial neural networks in prediction of diclofenac sodium release from drug-modified zeolites physical mixtures and antiedematous activity assessment.

In this study, utilization of artificial neural network (ANN) models [static-multilayer perceptron (MLP) and generalized regression neural networks and dynamic-gamma one-layer network and recurrent one-layer network] for prediction of diclofenac sodium (DS) release from drug-cationic surfactant-modified zeolites physical mixtures comprising different surfactant/drug molar ratio (0.2-2.5) was performed. The inputs for ANNs trainings were surfactant/drug molar ratios, that is, drug loadings in the drug-modified zeolite mixtures, whereas the outputs were percents of drug release in predetermined time points during drug release test (8 h). The obtained results revealed that MLP showed the highest correlation between experimental and predicted drug release. The safety of both natural and cationic surfactant-modified zeolite as a potential excipient was confirmed in an acute toxicity testing during 72 h. DS (1.5, 5, 10, mg/kg, p.o.) as well as DS-modified zeolites mixtures produced a significant dose-dependent reduction of the rat paw edema induced by proinflammatory agent carrageenan. DS antiedematous effect was intensified and prolonged significantly by modified zeolite. These results could suggest the potential improvement in the treatment of inflammation by DS-modified zeolite mixtures.

Inorganically modified diatomite as a potential prolonged-release drug carrier.

Inorganic modification of diatomite was performed with the precipitation product of partially neutralized aluminum sulfate solution at three different mass ratios. The starting and the modified diatomites were characterized by SEM-EDS, FTIR, thermal analysis and zeta potential measurements and evaluated for drug loading capacity in adsorption batch experiments using diclofenac sodium (DS) as a model drug. In vitro drug release studies were performed in phosphate buffer pH6.8 from comprimates containing: the drug adsorbed onto the selected modified diatomite sample (DAMD), physical mixture of the drug with the selected modified diatomite sample (PMDMD) and physical mixture of the drug with the starting diatomite (PMDD). In vivo acute toxicity testing of the modified diatomite samples was performed on mice. High adsorbent loading of the selected modified diatomite sample (~250mg/g in 2h) enabled the preparation of comprimates containing adsorbed DS in the amount near to its therapeutic dose. Drug release studies demonstrated prolonged release of DS over a period of 8h from both DAMD comprimates (18% after 8h) and PMDMD comprimates (45% after 8h). The release kinetics for DAMD and PMDMD comprimates fitted well with Korsmeyer-Peppas and Bhaskar models, indicating that the release mechanism was a combination of non-Fickian diffusion and ion exchange process.

Experimental design in formulation of diazepam nanoemulsions: physicochemical and pharmacokinetic performances.

With the aid of experimental design, we developed and characterized nanoemulsions for parenteral drug delivery. Formulations containing a mixture of medium-chain triglycerides and soybean oil as oil phase, lecithin (soybean/egg) and polysorbate 80 as emulsifiers, and 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution (pH 8) as aqueous phase were prepared by cold high-pressure homogenization. To study the effects of the oil content, lecithin type, and the presence of diazepam as a model drug and their interactions on physicochemical characteristics of nanoemulsions, a three factor two-level full factorial design was applied. The nanoemulsions were evaluated concerning droplet size and size distribution, surface charge, viscosity, morphology, drug-excipient interactions, and physical stability. The characterization revealed the small spherical droplets in the range 195 -220 nm with polydispersity index below 0.15 and zeta potential between -30 and - 60 mV. Interactions among the investigated factors, rather than factors alone, were shown to more profoundly affect nanoemulsion characteristics. In vivo pharmacokinetic study of selected diazepam nanoemulsions with different oil content (20%, 30%, and 40%, w/w) demonstrated fast and intense initial distribution into rat brain of diazepam from nanoemulsions with 20% and 30% (w/w) oil content, suggesting their applicability in urgent situations.

An investigation of formulation factors affecting feasibility of alginate-chitosan microparticles for oral delivery of naproxen.

In the present work we investigated the feasibility of chitosan treated Ca-alginate microparticles for delivery of naproxen in lower parts of GIT and evaluated influence of formulation factors on their physicochemical characteristics and drug release profiles. Investigated factors were drug/polymer ratio, chitosan molecular weight, chitosan concentration in hardening medium, and hardening time. Sixteen microparticle formulations were prepared utilizing 24 full factorial design (each factor was varied at two levels). Microparticles size varied between 262.3 ± 14.9 and 358.4 ± 21.7 µm with slightly deformed spherical shape. Low naproxen solubility and rapid reaction of ionotropic gelation resulted in high encapsulation efficiency (> 75.19%). Under conditions mimicking those in the stomach, after two hours, less than 6.18% of naproxen was released. Significant influence of all investigated factors on drug release rate was observed in simulated small intestinal fluid. Furthermore, experimental design analysis revealed that chitosan molecular weight and its concentration had the most pronounced effect on naproxen release. Release data kinetics indicated predominant influence of a pH-dependent relaxation mechanism on drug release from microparticles.