High-performance countercurrent membrane purification for host cell protein removal from monoclonal antibody products.

The transition to continuous biomanufacturing has led to renewed interest in alternative approaches for downstream processing of monoclonal antibody (mAb) products. In this study, we examined the potential of using high-performance countercurrent membrane purification (HPCMP) for the removal of host cell proteins (HCPs) derived from Chinese Hamster Ovary cells in the purification of a mAb. Initial studies used several model proteins to identify appropriate operating conditions for the hollow fiber membrane modules. HPCMP was then used for mAb purification, with mAb yield >95% and more than 100-fold reduction in HCP. Stable operation was maintained for 48 h for feeds that were first prefiltered through the 3MTM Harvest RC chromatographic clarifier to remove DNA and other foulants. In addition, the Process Mass Intensity for HPCMP can be much less than that for alternative HCP separation processes. These results highlight the potential of using HPCMP as part of a fully continuous mAb production process.

Poly(2-oxazoline)s terminated with 2,2'-imino diacetic acid form noncovalent polymer-enzyme conjugates that are highly active in organic solvents.

A great limitation for the usability of free enzymes in organic solvents is their insolubility in these media. Some surfactants are capable of solubilizing enzymes in such media, but they are hard to remove. Covalent modification of enzymes with polymers has led to polymer-enzyme conjugates (PECs) that are soluble in organic solvents, but the process is quite elaborate. Poly(2-oxazoline)s (POx) with the end group 2,2'-imino diacetic acid were shown to form reversible, nano-sized noncovalent aggregates with enzymes. These PECs give clear solutions in organic solvents. The enzymes lysozyme, horseradish peroxidase (HRP), laccase, α-chymotrypsin (CT), catalase, and alcohol dehydrogenase could be solubilized in chloroform and toluene at concentrations of up to 2 mg protein/ml. Laccase, HRP, and CT were shown to survive the transfer into the organic medium and back to water in their active form. The distribution coefficient of the proteins between water and the organic solvent was shown to be dependent on the nature of the POx backbone. All three biocatalysts exhibit greatly enhanced activity in the respective organic solvent.

Insights into the Kinetics of the Resistance Formation of Bacteria against Ciprofloxacin Poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) Conjugates.

The influence on the resistance formation of polymers attached to antibiotics has rarely been investigated. In this study, ciprofloxacin (CIP) was conjugated to poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline)s with an ethylene diamine end group (Me-PMOx28-EDA) via two different spacers (CIP modified with α,α'-dichloro- p-xylene-xCIP, CIP modified with chloroacetyl chloride-eCIP). The antibacterial activity of the conjugates against a number of bacterial strains shows a great dependence on the nature of the spacer. The Me-PMOx39-EDA-eCIP, containing a potentially cleavable linker, does not exhibit a molecular weight dependence on antibacterial activity in contrast to Me-PMOx27-EDA-xCIP. The resistance formation of both conjugates against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was investigated. Both conjugates showed the potential to significantly delay the formation of resistant bacteria compared to the unmodified CIP. Closer inspection of a possible resistance mechanism by genome sequencing of the topoisomerase IV region of resistant S. aureus revealed that this bacterium mutates at the same position when building up resistance to CIP and to Me-PMOx27-EDA-xCIP. However, the S. aureus cells that became resistant against the polymer conjugate are fully susceptible to CIP. Thus, conjugation of CIP with PMOx seems to alter the resistance mechanism.

Entropically driven Polymeric Enzyme Inhibitors by End-Group directed Conjugation.

A new generic concept for polymeric enzyme inhibitors is presented using the example of poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) (PMOx) terminated with an iminodiacetate (IDA) function. These polymers are shown to be non-competitive inhibitors for horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Mechanistic investigations revealed that the polymer is directed to the protein by its end group and collapses at the surface in an entropy-driven process as shown by isothermal titration calorimetry. The dissociation constant of the complex was determined as the inhibition constant Ki using HRP kinetic activity measurements. Additional experiments suggest that the polymer does not form a diffusion layer around the protein, but might inhibit by inducing minor conformational changes in the protein. This kind of inhibitor offers new avenues towards designing bioactive compounds.

Poly(2-oxazoline)-Antibiotic Conjugates with Penicillins.

The conjugation of antibiotics with polymers is rarely done, but it might be a promising alternative to low-molecular-weight derivatization. The two penicillins penicillin G (PenG) and penicillin V (PenV) were attached to the end groups of different water-soluble poly(2-oxazoline)s (POx) via their carboxylic acid function. This ester group was shown to be more stable against hydrolysis than the ß-lactam ring of the penicillins. The conjugates are still antimicrobially active and up to 20 times more stable against penicillinase catalyzed hydrolysis. The antibiotic activity of the conjugates against Staphylococcus aureus in the presence of penicillinase is up to 350 times higher compared with the free antibiotics. Conjugates with a second antimicrobial function, a dodecyltrimethylammonium group (DDA-X), at the starting end of the PenG and PenV POx conjugates are more antimicrobially active than the conjugates without DDA-X and show high activity in the presence of penicillinase. For example, the conjugates DDA-X-PEtOx-PenG and DDA-X-PEtOx-PenV are 200 to 350 times more active against S. aureus in the presence of penicillinase and almost as effective as the penicillinase stable cloxacollin (Clox) under these conditions. These conjugates show even greater activity compared to cloxacollin without this enzyme present. Further, both conjugates kill Escherichia coli more effectively than PenG and Clox.

Conjugation of Ciprofloxacin with Poly(2-oxazoline)s and Polyethylene Glycol via End Groups.

The antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP) was covalently attached to the chain end of poly(2-methyloxazoline) (PMOx), poly(2-ethyloxazoline) (PEtOx), and polyethylene glycol (PEG), and the antimicrobial activity of these conjugates was tested for Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Kleisella pneumoniae. Chemical structures of the conjugates were proven by (1)H NMR and electron spray ionization mass spectrometry. The direct coupling of PMOx and CIP resulted in low antimicrobial activity. The coupling via a spacer afforded molecular weight dependent activity with a molar minimal inhibitory concentration that is even higher than that of the pristine CIP. The antimicrobial activity of the conjugates increases in the order of PMOx < PEtOx < PEG. Conjugation of CIP and a quaternary ammonium compound via PMOx did not result in higher activity, indicating no satellite group or synergistic effect of the different biocidal end groups.

Antimicrobial poly(2-methyloxazoline)s with bioswitchable activity through satellite group modification.

Biocides are widely used for preventing the spread of microbial infections and fouling of materials. Since their use can build up microbial resistance and cause unpredictable long-term environmental problems, new biocidal agents are required. In this study, we demonstrate a concept in which an antimicrobial polymer is deactivated by the cleavage of a single group. Following the satellite group approach, a biocidal quaternary ammonium group was linked through a poly(2-methyloxazoline) to an ester satellite group. The polymer with an octyl-3-propionoate satellite group shows very good antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacterial strains. The biocidal polymer was also found to have low hemotoxicity, resulting in a high HC50 /MIC value of 120 for S. aureus. Cleaving the ester satellite group resulted in a 30-fold decrease in antimicrobial activity, proving the concept valid. The satellite group could also be cleaved by lipase showing that the antimicrobial activity of the new biocidal polymers is indeed bioswitchable.

Impact of functional satellite groups on the antimicrobial activity and hemocompatibility of telechelic poly(2-methyloxazoline)s.

Polyoxazolines with a biocidal quarternary ammonium end-group are potent biocides. Interestingly, the antimicrobial activity of the whole macromolecule is controlled by the nature of the group at the distal end. These nonreactive groups are usually introduced via the initiator. Here we present a study with a series of polymethyloxazolines with varying satellite groups introduced upon termination of the polymerization reaction. This allowed us to introduce a series of functional satellites, including hydroxy, primary amino, and double-bond-containing groups. The resulting telechelic polyoxazolines were explored regarding their antimicrobial activity and toxicity. It was found that the functional satellite groups greatly controlled the minimal inhibitory concentrations against the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in a range of 10 to 2500 ppm. Surprisingly, the satellite groups also controlled the hemotoxicity but in a different way than the antimicrobial efficiency.

Well-defined amphiphilic poly(2-oxazoline) ABA-triblock copolymers and their aggregation behavior in aqueous solution.

Self-organization of block copolymers in solution is a way to obtain advanced functional superstructures. The synthesis of well-defined polymethyloxazoline-block-polyphenyloxazoline-block-polymethyloxazoline triblock copolymers is described and proven by (1) H NMR spectroscopy, SEC, and ESI-MS. The surprisingly water- soluble block copolymers do self-organize in aqueous solutions uniquely forming three coexisting well-defined structures: unimolecular micelles, micellar aggregates, and very form-stable polymersomes. This is the first example of a polymersome forming ABA-triblock copolymer with a glassy middle block. The spherical vesicles are analysed by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. It could be shown that these vesicles are indeed hollow spheres.

Fast-Acting Antibacterial, Self-Deactivating Polyionene Esters.

Biocidal compounds that quickly kill bacterial cells and are then deactivated in the surrounding without causing environmental problems are of great current interest. Here, we present new biodegradable antibacterial polymers based on polyionenes with inserted ester functions (PBI esters). The polymers are prepared by polycondensation reaction of 1,4-dibromobutene and different tertiary diaminodiesters. The resulting PBI esters are antibacterially active against a wide range of bacterial strains and were found to quickly kill these cells within 1 to 10 min. Because of hydrolysis of the ester groups, the PBI esters are degraded and deactivated in aqueous media. The degradation rate depends on the backbone structure and the pH. The structure of the polymers also controls the deactivation mechanism. While the more hydrophilic polymers require hydrolyses of only 19 to 30% of the ester groups to become practically inactive, the more hydrophobic PBI esters require up to 85% hydrolysis to achieve the same result. Thus, depending on the environmental conditions and the chemical nature, the PBI esters can be active for only 20 min or for at least one week.

Telechelic, Antimicrobial Hydrophilic Polycations with Two Modes of Action.

Telechelic antimicrobial poly(2-oxazoline)s with quaternary ammonium (quat) end groups are shown to be potent antimicrobial polymers against Gram-positive bacterial strains. In this study, the activity against the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli is additionally implemented by hydrolyzing the poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) with two quart end groups to poly(ethylene imine) (PEI). The resulting telechelic polycations are active against Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli. The contribution of the PEI backbone is determined by measuring the antimicrobial activity in the presence of calcium ions. The influence of PEI on the overall activity strongly depends on the molecular weight and increases with higher mass. The PEI dominates the activity against E. coli at lower masses than against S. aureus. The quart end groups require an alkyl substituent of dodecyl or longer to dominate the antimicrobial activity. Additionally, PEI and quart end groups act synergistically.

Cross-Linking of a Hydrophilic, Antimicrobial Polycation toward a Fast-Swelling, Antimicrobial Superabsorber and Interpenetrating Hydrogel Networks with Long Lasting Antimicrobial Properties.

A hemocompatible, antimicrobial 3,4en-ionene (PBI) derived by polyaddition of trans-1,4-dibromo-2-butene and N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-1,3-propanediamine was cross-linked via its bromine end groups using tris(2-aminoethyl)amine (TREN) to form a fast-swelling, antimicrobial superabsorber. This superabsorber is taking up the 30-fold of its weight in 60 s and the granulated material is taking up 96-fold of its weight forming a hydrogel. It fully prevents growth of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. The PBI network was swollen with 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate and glycerol dimethacrylate followed by photopolymerization to form an interpenetrating hydrogel (IPH) with varying PBI content in the range of 2.0 to 7.8 wt %. The nanophasic structure of the IPH was confirmed by atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The bacterial cells of the nosocomial strains Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are killed on the IPH even at the lowest PBI concentration. The antimicrobial activity was retained after washing the hydrogels for up to 4 weeks. The IPHs show minor leaching of PBI far below its antimicrobial active concentration using a new quantitative test for PBI detection in solution. This leaching was shown to be insufficient to form an inhibition zone and killing bacterial cells in the surroundings of the IPH.

Amphiphilic Polymer Conetworks Based on End-Linked "Core-First" Star Block Copolymers: Structure Formation with Long-Range Order.

Amphiphilic polymer conetworks are cross-linked polymers that swell both in water and in organic solvents and can phase separate on the nanoscale in the bulk or in selective solvents. To date, however, this phase separation has only been reported with short-range order, characterized by disordered morphologies. We now report the first example of amphiphilic polymer conetworks, based on end-linked "core-first" star block copolymers, that form a lamellar phase with long-range order. These mesoscopically ordered systems can be produced in a simple fashion and exhibit significantly improved mechanical properties.

Investigations on the activity of poly(2-oxazoline) enzyme conjugates dissolved in organic solvents.

The use of enzymes in organic solvents offers a great opportunity for the highly selective synthesis of complex organic compounds. In this study we investigate the POXylation of several enzymes with different polyoxazolines ranging from the hydrophilic poly(2-methyl-oxazoline) (PMOx) to the hydrophobic poly(2-heptyl-oxazoline) (PHeptOx). As reported previously on the examples of model enzymes POXylation mediated by pyromellitic acid dianhydride results in highly modified, organosoluble protein conjugates. This procedure is here extended to a larger number of proteins and optimized for the different polyoxazolines. The resulting polymer-enzyme conjugates (PEC) became soluble in different organic solvents ranging from hydrophilic DMF to even toluene. These conjugates were characterized regarding their solubility and especially their activity in organic solvents and in some cases the PECs showed significantly (up to 153,000 fold) higher activities than the respective native enzymes.