Problematic Internet use among adults: A longitudinal European study. / Uso problemático de internet entre adultos: Un estudio europeo longitudinal.

There are few cross-cultural studies utilizing longitudinal analysis to explore problematic internet use (PIU), and almost none among adults. The present follow-up study compared three waves across 12-month period every six months and observed the natural course and trajectory of PIU in a European multi-country sample of adults from 11 countries (Finland, Germany, Italy, Spain, France, Switzerland, Hungary, Poland, UK, Norway, Belgium). A total of 139 participants (45.5% females) provided data across all three waves with an average age of 26.14 years (SD = 5.92). There were longitudinal effects in PIU, with statistical differences between at-risk users compared to healthy users in Waves 1 and 2, and Waves 1 and 3. The analyses of variance showed a longitudinal effect of waves on the PIU symptoms. PIU was significantly affected by time and type of user, with those classed as at-risk having higher scores than healthy users, although PIU decreased over time. In addition, the type of PIU detected in adults contained mild addictive symptoms. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that PIU was generally low among European adult population and tended to decrease over the one-year period, what contrasts with adolescent population findings.

Existen pocos estudios transculturales que utilizan análisis longitudinales para explorar el uso problemático de internet (PIU), y apenas existen estudios en población adulta. El presente estudio de seguimiento ha comparado tres observaciones a lo largo de un período de 12 meses, una cada seis meses. Se observó el curso natural y la trayectoria del PIU en una muestra europea de adultos de 11 países (Finlandia, Alemania, Italia, España, Francia, Suiza, Hungría, Polonia, Reino Unido, Noruega, Bélgica). 139 participantes (45,5 % mujeres) con una edad promedio de 26,14 años (DE = 5,92) proporcionaron datos en las tres observaciones. Se detectaros efectos longitudinales en el PIU, con diferencias estadísticas entre usuarios en riesgo en comparación con usuarios sanos en las observaciones 1 y 2, y las correspondientes a las observaciones 1 y 3. Los análisis de varianza mostraron un efecto longitudinal de las observaciones en los síntomas del PIU. Se halló que el PIU fue significativamente afectado por los factores del tiempo y del tipo de usuario, y aquellos participantes clasificados como en posible riesgo de PIU obtuvieron puntuaciones más altas que los usuarios sanos, aunque el PIU disminuyó con el tiempo en ambos grupos. Además, el tipo de PIU detectado en adultos contenía una sintomatología adictiva leve. En conclusión, este estudio demostró que el PIU fue generalmente bajo entre la población adulta europea y, además, tendió a disminuir durante el período de un año, lo que contrasta con los resultados en población adolescente.

Effects of a 7-Day Pornography Abstinence Period on Withdrawal-Related Symptoms in Regular Pornography Users: A Randomized Controlled Study.

Little is known about whether withdrawal-like symptoms manifest when regular pornography users attempt to abstain from pornography. The present study used a randomized controlled design to examine whether (1) negative abstinence effects that may be potentially reflective of withdrawal-related symptoms manifest when a non-clinical sample of regular pornography users attempt to abstain from pornography for a 7-day period and (2) these negative abstinence effects would only manifest (or manifest more strongly) for those with higher levels of problematic pornography use (PPU). A total of 176 undergraduate students (64.2% female) who were regular pornography users (defined as having used pornography ≥ three times a week in the past 4 weeks) were randomly assigned to an abstinence group (instructed to attempt abstinence from pornography for 7 days, n = 86) or a control group (free to watch pornography as usual, n = 90). Participants completed measures of craving, positive and negative affect, and withdrawal symptoms at baseline and each night of the 7-day period. Contrary to the confirmatory hypotheses, there were no significant main effects of group (abstinence vs. control) or group × PPU interaction effects on any of the outcome measures, controlling for baseline scores. These findings indicate that no evidence of withdrawal-related symptoms was found for abstaining participants, and this was not dependent on level of PPU. However, exploratory analyses showed a significant three-way interaction (group × PPU × past 4-week frequency of pornography use [FPU]) on craving, where an abstinence effect on craving was found at high levels of PPU only once past 4-week FPU reached the threshold of daily use. While these exploratory findings should be interpreted with caution, they suggest that abstinence effects could potentially manifest when there is a combination of high PPU and high FPU-a hypothesis that warrants investigation in future prospective abstinence studies.

Tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression mediate the relationship between problematic internet use and procrastination.

The current scientific literature lacks studies on the relationship between problematic internet use (PIU) and procrastination, especially regarding the mediating mechanisms underlying this relationship. The present study examined the association between procrastination and PIU, as well as determining the mediating roles of tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression. The conceptual model was tested using data collected from 434 Iranian college students. The participants completed a number of psychometric scales assessing procrastination, PIU, tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized model. Results showed that PIU, tolerance for ambiguity, and suppression were positively associated with procrastination, and that there was a negative association between reappraisal and procrastination. Moreover, the mediation analysis indicated that tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression fully mediated the association between PIU and procrastination. However, it is also possible to interpret the results as suggesting that PIU is unimportant as a predictor for procrastination once mediators are controlled for.

The Pornography "Rebooting" Experience: A Qualitative Analysis of Abstinence Journals on an Online Pornography Abstinence Forum.

A growing number of individuals using online forums are attempting to abstain from pornography (colloquially termed "rebooting") due to self-perceived pornography-related problems. The present qualitative study explored phenomenological experiences of abstinence among members of an online "rebooting" forum. A total of 104 abstinence journals by male forum members were systematically analyzed using thematic analysis. A total of four themes (with a total of nine subthemes) emerged from the data: (1) abstinence is the solution to pornography-related problems, (2) sometimes abstinence seems impossible, (3) abstinence is achievable with the right resources, and (4) abstinence is rewarding if persisted with. Members' primary reasons for initiating "rebooting" involved desiring to overcome a perceived addiction to pornography and/or alleviate perceived negative consequences attributed to pornography use, especially sexual difficulties. Successfully achieving and maintaining abstinence was typically experienced to be very challenging due to habitual behavior patterns and/or cravings triggered by a multiplicity of cues for pornography use, but a combination of internal (e.g., cognitive-behavioral strategies) and external (e.g., social support) resources made abstinence attainable for many members. A range of benefits attributed to abstinence by members suggest that abstaining from pornography could potentially be a beneficial intervention for problematic pornography use, although future prospective studies are needed to rule out possible third variable explanations for these perceived effects and to rigorously evaluate abstinence as an intervention. The present findings shed light on what the "rebooting" experience is like from members' own perspectives and provide insights into abstinence as an approach for addressing problematic pornography use.

Policy and Prevention Approaches for Disordered and Hazardous Gaming and Internet Use: an International Perspective.

Problems related to high levels of gaming and Internet usage are increasingly recognized as a potential public health burden across the developed world. The aim of this review was to present an international perspective on prevention strategies for Internet gaming disorder and related health conditions (e.g., Internet addiction), as well as hazardous gaming and Internet use. A systematic review of quantitative research evidence was conducted, followed by a search of governmental reports, policy and position statements, and health guidelines in the last decade. The regional scope included the USA, UK, Australia, China, Germany, Japan, and South Korea. Prevention studies have mainly involved school-based programs to train healthier Internet use habits in adolescents. The efficacy of selective prevention is promising but warrants further empirical attention. On an international scale, the formal recognition of gaming or Internet use as a disorder or as having quantifiable harms at certain levels of usage has been foundational to developing structured prevention responses. The South Korean model, in particular, is an exemplar of a coordinated response to a public health threat, with extensive government initiatives and long-term strategic plans at all three levels of prevention (i.e., universal, selective, and indicated). Western regions, by comparison, are dominated by prevention approaches led by non-profit organizations and private enterprise. The future of prevention of gaming and Internet problems ultimately relies upon all stakeholders working collaboratively in the public interest, confronting the reality of the evidence base and developing practical, ethical, and sustainable countermeasures.

Development of the Saini-Hodgins Addiction Risk Potential of Games (SHARP-G) Scale: An International Delphi study.

Background and Objectives: As the gaming industry experiences exponential growth, concerns about gaming disorder (GD) also grow. It is crucial to understand the structural features of games that can interact with individual characteristics of gamers to promote GD. This research consolidates the views of an international body of panelists to create an assessment tool for gauging the addictive potential of distinct games. Methods: Utilizing the iterative and structured Delphi method, an international panel of researchers, clinicians, and people with lived experience were recruited to offer a multifaceted viewpoint on the addictive risk associated with specific structural elements in games. Two rounds of surveys facilitated consensus. Results: The panel initially included 40 members-ten from research, eight from clinical settings, and 22 with lived experiences. The second round included 27 panelists-seven from research, eight from clinical settings, and 11 with lived experiences. The study identified 25 structural features that contribute to potentially addictive gaming patterns. Discussion and Conclusions: Consensus was found for 25 features, which were distilled into a 23-item evaluation tool. The Saini-Hodgins Addiction Risk Potential of Games Scale (SHARP-G) consists of five overarching categories: 'Social,' 'Gambling-Like Features,' 'Personal Investment,' 'Accessibility,' and 'World Design.' SHARP-G yields a total score indicating level of addiction risk. A case study applying the scale to three games of differing perceived risk levels demonstrated that that score corresponded to game risk as expected. While the SHARP-G scale requires further validation, it provides significant promise for evaluating gaming experiences and products.

Digital Media and Developing Brains: Concerns and Opportunities.

Purpose of Review: The incorporation of digital technologies and their use in youth's everyday lives has been increasing rapidly over the past several decades with possible impacts on youth development and mental health. This narrative review aimed to consider how the use of digital technologies may be influencing brain development underlying adaptive and maladaptive screen-related behaviors. Recent Findings: To explore and provide direction for further scientific inquiry, an international group of experts considered what is known, important gaps in knowledge, and how a research agenda might be pursued regarding relationships between screen media activity and neurodevelopment from infancy through childhood and adolescence. While an understanding of brain-behavior relationships involving screen media activity has been emerging, significant gaps exist that have important implications for the health of developing youth. Summary: Specific considerations regarding brain-behavior relationships involving screen media activity exist for infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood; middle childhood; and adolescence. Transdiagnostic frameworks may provide a foundation for guiding future research efforts. Translating knowledge gained into better interventions and policy to promote healthy development is important in a rapidly changing digital technology environment.

Early maladaptive schemas and behavioural addictions: A systematic literature review.

As observed in other mental health difficulties, behavioural addiction is a complex construct with several potential predisposing factors, which include biological factors (e.g., genetic predispositions), psychological factors (e.g., personality traits), and social factors (e.g., family, and social history). One factor that may play a significant role in both developing and perpetuating behavioural addiction is the activation of early maladaptive schemas (EMSs). The aim of the present review was to synthesize the evidence concerning the relationship between behavioural addiction and EMSs. A comprehensive literature search using keywords and subject headings was performed with three electronic databases, resulting in 20 studies that met the inclusion criteria. In relation to specific behavioural addiction, the 20 studies examined: binge-eating/food addiction (n = 6), sexual addiction/compulsive sexual behaviours (n = 3), multiple addictive behaviours (n = 2), internet addiction (n = 2), smartphone addiction (n = 2), social networking/Facebook addiction (n = 2), exercise dependence (n = 1), gambling (n = 1), and videogame addiction (n = 1). The patterns of association between EMS and behavioural addiction were examined in both clinical and non-clinical population. The 'Disconnection and Rejection' domain was the most strongly related schema domain across all addictive behaviours, followed by 'Impaired Limits'. The present review suggests a positive relationship between schema activation and several addictive behaviours, including addictions to gambling, gaming, social media use sex, exercise, and food. The clinical implications of the findings are discussed, but further research is needed to inform treatment plans and interventions for those who struggle with behavioural addictions.

Dating App Use and Wellbeing: An Application-Based Pilot Study Employing Ecological Momentary Assessment and Objective Measures of Use.

Smartphones are part of individuals' daily lifestyles, as are smartphone applications such as dating apps. Previous evidence suggests that high engagement in dating applications can be detrimental to some users' wellbeing. However, much of the published research has relied on cross-sectional studies and self-report measures. Therefore, the present study aims to overcome the limitations of subjective measures in cross-sectional designs by investigating for the first time the relationship between dating app users' wellbeing (self-esteem, craving and mood) and objective measures of their use during a one-week period. To do this, the present study employed a newly developed application, DiaryMood and utilized ecological momentary assessment (EMA), as it measured subjects' mood, self-esteem and craving three times per day and the time spent using the dating apps per day during one week. A convenience sample of 22 online dating app users participated in the present study. Findings from a three-level multilevel analysis indicated that increased time spent on dating apps predicted craving among dating app users and that notifications led to an improved mood and higher self-esteem. The results are discussed in relation to previous online dating studies. In sum, the present study sets a precedent for the use of EMA within the scope of online dating research, which may promote further studies adopting this methodology.

Development, psychometric validation, and cross-cultural comparison of the "Instagram Motives Questionnaire" (IMQ) and the "Instagram Uses and Patterns Questionnaire" (IUPQ).

Background and aims: Social network use is widespread, and the study of Instagram seems to have captured more attention in recent years. However, scale development and validation in the field has fallen short of providing sound scales of Instagram motives and usage patterns that consider the uniqueness of Instagram-related behavior. This paper describes the development, psychometric and cross-cultural validation of two new measurement instruments: the "Instagram Motives Questionnaire" (IMQ) and the "Instagram Uses and Patterns Questionnaire" (IUPQ). Methods and results: A preliminary set of items was developed for each questionnaire based on a previous qualitative interview study on Instagram motives, uses, and consequences. In the first study, the questionnaires were distributed to a sample of 312 participants aged 18-35 years (M = 23.81; SD = 4.49), and an exploratory factor analysis was performed. A parsimonious and interpretable 6-factor solution that displayed adequate factor loadings and adequate Omega coefficients for both instruments were found. In a second study, the two instruments and other measures of known social network usage correlates and mental health consequences were administered online to 1,418 English-speaking participants aged 18-34 years (M = 21.35; SD = 3.89). Both scales showed good psychometric properties and the factor structure identified in study 1 was reproduced through confirmatory factor analysis. Omega reliability coefficients were adequate. Finally, when performing multi-group CFA along with a French (n = 1,826) and a Spanish (n = 3,040) sample, language and gender invariance were supported. Correlations with other relevant measures indicate good convergent validity of both scales. Conclusions: The present research provides psychometrically sound instruments for further investigations on Instagram use behaviors.

Problematic Internet Use among Adults: A Cross-Cultural Study in 15 Countries.

BACKGROUND: The present study compared adult usage patterns of online activities, the frequency rate of problematic internet use (PIU), and risk factors (including the psychopathology associated with PIU, i.e., distress and impulsivity) among adults in 15 countries from Europe, America, and Asia. METHODS: A total of 5130 adults from Belgium, Finland, Germany, Italy, Spain, France, Switzerland, Hungary, Poland, UK, Norway, Peru, Canada, US, and Indonesia completed an online survey assessing PIU and a number of psychological variables (i.e., depression, anxiety, stress, and impulsivity). The sample included more females, with a mean age of 24.71 years (SD = 8.70). RESULTS: PIU was slightly lower in European countries (rates ranged from 1.1% in Finland to 10.1% in the UK, compared to 2.9% in Canada and 10.4% in the US). There were differences in specific PIU rates (e.g., problematic gaming ranged from 0.4% in Poland to 4.7% in Indonesia). Regression analyses showed that PIU was predicted by problematic social networking and gaming, lack of perseverance, positive urgency, and depression. CONCLUSIONS: The differences in PIU between countries were significant for those between continental regions (Europe versus non-European countries). One of the most interesting findings is that the specific PIU risks were generally low compared to contemporary literature. However, higher levels of PIU were present in countries outside of Europe, although intra-European differences existed.

What the grey literature can contribute to addictive behaviour disorder classification •.

This commentary examines the proposal made by Brand et al. (2022) regarding a framework outlining relevant criteria for considering possible behavioural addictions within the current World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) category of 'other specified disorders due to addictive behaviours'. We agree with the framework as it highlights the clinical perspective requiring agreed-upon classifications and criteria to produce effective diagnostic procedures and efficacious treatments. Additionally, we propose to add the need of recognising potential addictive behaviour through the inclusion of a fourth meta-level criterion: 'grey literature evidence'. Utilising non-academic evidence can provide validity in the social context where the behaviour takes place, and it can support authorities in taking action to prevent and treat the resultant behavioural problems. The inclusion of the proposed fourth criterion will aid comprehensibility of the current proposal and provide clarity, as indicated in the present commentary, which includes the fourth criterion analysis for problematic pornography use, shopping/buying and social networking site use.

The Relationship Between Early Maladaptive Schemas, Depression, Anxiety and Problematic Video Gaming Among Female and Male Gamers.

The present study investigated the relationship between problematic video gaming (PVG) and early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) among male and female gamers. Additionally, the present study investigated depression and anxiety as mediators in the relationship between EMSs and PVG. The study comprised 673 videogame players (391 female gamers) aged from 18 to 38 years. PVG was assessed using the nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form (IGDS9-SF). Depression and anxiety symptoms were assessed using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). EMS dimensions were assessed using the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ-S3). Results suggested that EMSs such as practical incompetence/dependence were positively related to PVG. The findings showed gender differences in these relationships. The vulnerability to harm or illness, enmeshment and subjugation schemas were positively related to PVG among male gamers. However, depression and anxiety did not mediate the relationship between EMSs and PVG. These findings may contribute to a better understanding of mechanisms related to PVG development, which are associated with maladaptive schemas. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary materials available at 10.1007/s11469-022-00858-2.

Coping and Co-Occurrence of Gaming Disorder and Substance Use in Recovering Substance Users.

BACKGROUND: There are a wide range of negative effects associated with both substance use disorders and behavioural disorders and their co-occurrence. Understanding the way in which at-risk populations (e.g., substance-abstinent users) interact with potentially addictive behaviours (e.g., gaming) and substance use-while navigating life stressors through differing coping styles-can inform preventative strategies. METHODS: Therefore, the present study investigated 64 clinical participants and 138 general population participants. Each cohort was required to complete a battery of psychometric scales exploring problematic behaviours, problematic substance use, co-occurrence, and coping styles. Additional exploratory direct comparisons of gamers in the clinical cohort and gamers in the general cohort were carried out. RESULTS: The study's findings suggest that gamers from different populations (i.e., general and clinical) share similar at-risk behaviours. These problematic behaviours were more pronounced among abstinent substance use gamers, and more specifically among poly-substance use gamers. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the present study add to the literature and suggest that dysfunctional coping style and the co-occurrence of problematic behaviours may have an impact on the assessment and potential treatment of substance abstinent gamers. The findings offer support for an integrated treatment approach, wherein both substance use and the other problematic behaviours (e.g., gaming) are considered in tandem.

Problematic Use of Social Networks during the First Lockdown: User Profiles and the Protective Effect of Resilience and Optimism.

During the first lockdown, there was an increase in time spent using Social Networking Sites (SNS), which should be studied, as well as problematic SNS use. The present study has three objectives: to evaluate (i) the differences across gender and age and SNS type in increased SNS use, (ii) problematic SNS use during lockdowns, and (iii) the protective role of resilience and optimism on problematic SNS use. A total of 1003 participants (75.5% women) over 18 years old participated (M = 42.33; SD = 14.32 years). The use of SNS before and during lockdown, anxiety, depression, life satisfaction and problematic SNS use were evaluated. A repeated measures ANOVA and four regression analyses were calculated for the first objective regarding increased SNS use. Another linear regression analysis was calculated for the second objective regarding problematic SNS use. A correlational analysis has been performed to assess the protective roles of resilience and optimism. Differences in the increased use of SNS were found between the two time points and between the different types of SNS. Higher use of Instagram and YouTube was related to younger age. Being female was associated with higher Instagram use. Significant problematic use was found to be associated with younger age but was not dependent on gender. Higher levels of resilience and optimism were related to a lower level of problematic SNS use. SNS use during lockdown needs to be studied in order to understand factors that may protect against undesirable psychological consequences and support prevention programs.

Using Social Networking Sites During Lockdown: Risks and Benefits.

BACKGROUND: Previous research about use of Social Networking Sites (SNS) use during the COVID-19 lockdown has examined benefits and risks of SNS use (i.e., support through SNS, problematic SNS use and interaction about COVID-19) without comparing them. This study has two objectives: (i) to evaluate which SNS uses (problematic SNS use and interaction about COVID-19 on SNS) predict increased emotional distress, and (ii) to analyse if social support and interaction about COVID-19 mediated the relationship between time spent on SNS and increased emotional distress. METHOD: A total of 1,003 participants (75.5% women) over 18 years old took part (M = 42.33; SD = 14.32 years). Three hierarchical linear regressions were performed for the first objective and a path analysis was performed for the second. RESULTS: Results showed that negative social comparison on SNS had the highest positive regression weight, followed by interaction about COVID-19 and addictive consequences. Also, an indirect effect of time spent on SNS on anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction through interaction about COVID-19 and support through SNS was found. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that comparative SNS use is the best predictor of emotional distress. The mediation model proposed was confirmed, highlighting the importance of assessing specific SNS uses.

To Be or Not to Be a Female Gamer: A Qualitative Exploration of Female Gamer Identity.

The literature on online gaming has generally focused on male gamers and has been dominated by negative aspects of gaming. The present study addresses the gender gap in this field by exploring experiences of female gamers further by unravelling several positive experiences alongside some potentially harmful tendencies connected to gaming, including female gamers' wishes and ambitions for their future gaming. A total of 20 female adult gamers across Europe were interviewed and results were analysed using thematic analysis. Four main themes were identified: (i) to be or not to be a (female) gamer; (ii) improving social skills and levelling up on mental health; (iii) not always a healthy escape; and (iv) there is more to explore. The present study is one of few empirical studies regarding the construction of self-image, and experiences of female gamers. It has showed participants have a history as gamers from adolescence, but still face problems derived from the stigmatised internal gender self-image. Externally, female gamer stigmatisation may result in sexism, gender violence, harassment, and objectification. Additionally, females may decide against identifying as gamers, engaging in social gaming interaction, or hold back from online gaming in general, thereby missing out on the opportunities for recreation as well as social and psychological benefits that gaming brings. There is, therefore, urgent need for more research and actions to promote change, equity, education, and security for female gamers as well as their male counterparts. Game developers would benefit from understanding this large gamer demographic better and tailoring games for women specifically.

Co-Occurrence of Gaming Disorder and Other Potentially Addictive Behaviours between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.

Background: Evidence suggests that gamers can have varying experiences of disordered gaming behaviours due to coping mechanisms and how they can act as risk or protective factor in the development and/or maintenance of disordered behaviours. A particular area of interest is how this may manifest across different countries. Understanding the interplay of these potential risk and protective factors within different countries will aid identifying and preventing disordered behaviours. Methods: Three cohorts were recruited from Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Each cohort was required to complete a battery of psychometric scales exploring problematic behaviours, problematic substance use, co-occurrence, coping styles, and personality. A latent profile analysis was conducted to examine the differences between cohorts and further investigated with additional analyses. Results: The findings suggested that a minority of gamers were affected by gaming disorder, and there appeared an at-risk cohort who utilise gaming as a maladaptive coping strategy. Other accompanying potentially addictive behaviour or substance use may be exacerbated as a result, the manifestation of which can be influenced by cultural elements. Conclusions: When considering gamers from countries which hold similar views, it is important to be cognisant of the variations found in the manifestations of disordered gaming and accompanying potentially addictive behaviours. This will allow for a more precise identification of at-risk behaviours, which will result in more favourable treatment outcomes for those who are considered at-risk or high-risk individuals.

Perceptions Underlying Addictive Technology Use Patterns: Insights for Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy.

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is considered the 'gold standard' in the treatment of addictive disorders related to excessive technology use. However, the cognitive components of problematic internet use are not yet well-known. The aim of the present study was to explore the cognitive components, that according to problematic users, can lead to potential internet addiction. A total of 854 European adults completed an online survey using a mixed-methods design. Internet problems and attachment styles were assessed, prevalence rates estimated, correlations, chi-squared automatic interaction detection, and content analysis were performed. Self-reported addictions to social networking, internet, and gaming had a prevalence between 1.2% (gaming) to 2.7% (social networking). Self-perception of the addiction problem and preoccupied attachment style were discriminative factors for internet addiction. In an analysis of qualitative responses from self-identified compulsive internet users, a sense of not belonging and feeling of disconnection during life events were perceived as causes for internet addiction. The development depended on a cycle of mixed feelings associated with negative thoughts, compensated by a positive online identity. The severity of this behaviour pattern produced significant impairment in various areas of the participants' functioning, suggesting a possible addiction problem. It is suggested that health professionals administering CBT should target unhealthy preoccupations and monitor mixed feelings and thoughts related to internet use to support coping with cognitive distortions.

Perceptions of blame on social media during the coronavirus pandemic.

The outbreak of the coronavirus (COVID-19) disease is overwhelming resources, economies and countries around the world. Millions of people have been infected and hundreds of thousands have succumbed to the virus. Research regarding the coronavirus pandemic is published every day. However, there is limited discourse regarding societal perception. Thus, this paper examines blame attribution concerning the origin and propagation of the coronavirus crisis according to public perception. Specifically, data were extracted from the social media platform Twitter concerning the coronavirus during the early stages of the outbreak and further investigated using thematic analysis. The findings revealed the public predominantly blames national governments for the coronavirus pandemic. In addition, the results documented the explosion of conspiracy theories among social media users regarding the virus' origin. In the early stages of the pandemic, the blame tendency was most frequent to conspiracy theories and restriction of information from the government, whilst in the later months, responsibility had shifted to political leaders and the media. The findings indicate an emerging government mistrust that may result in disregard of preventive health behaviours and the amplification of conspiracy theories, and an evolving dynamic of blame. This study argues for a transparent, continuing dialogue between governments and the public to stop the spread of the coronavirus.