Le difficile pilotage d'une réforme d'un système de santé : cas du Nouveau-Brunswick (Canada).

INTRODUCTION: In many developed countries, reforms of public healthcare systems are ongoing but do not always achieve desired results. In this article, we present the history of the healthcare system reform in the Canadian province of New Brunswick with the objective of analyzing its difficult steering by the state, in light of the dynamics between the actors involved. METHOD: Qualitative methods were chosen. Data collection includes semi-structured interviews (N = 39) with representatives of the State, such as health ministers, and other relevant stakeholders, such as managers, citizens or health professionals. RESULTS: The stakeholders were compelled by various aspects of the reform, for example francophone health care services, that had consequences on the trajectory of change. To stay on target, the State must adapt to the dynamic interactions of the actors involved. CONCLUSION: Reforms take place over a long period of time and their programming by the State can be very difficult, as it requires the mobilization of different types of instruments at its disposal. In order to influence the behaviour of the actors concerned, the State must define a goal whose general orientations are agreed upon, succeed in forging bonds of trust and managing resistance, and finally, use standardized data in order to provide a normative framework and evaluate the progress of the reform project.

[The difficult steering of health system reform: the case of New Brunswick (Canada)] / Le difficile pilotage d'une réforme d'un système de santé : cas du Nouveau-Brunswick (Canada).

INTRODUCTION: In many developed countries, reforms of public healthcare systems are ongoing but do not always achieve desired results. In this article, we present the history of the healthcare system reform in the Canadian province of New Brunswick with the objective of analyzing its difficult steering by the state, in light of the dynamics between the actors involved. METHOD: Qualitative methods were chosen. Data collection includes semi-structured interviews (N = 39) with representatives of the State, such as health ministers, and other relevant stakeholders, such as managers, citizens or health professionals. RESULTS: The stakeholders were compelled by various aspects of the reform, for example francophone health care services, that had consequences on the trajectory of change. To stay on target, the State must adapt to the dynamic interactions of the actors involved. CONCLUSION: Reforms take place over a long period of time and their programming by the State can be very difficult, as it requires the mobilization of different types of instruments at its disposal. In order to influence the behaviour of the actors concerned, the State must define a goal whose general orientations are agreed upon, succeed in forging bonds of trust and managing resistance, and finally, use standardized data in order to provide a normative framework and evaluate the progress of the reform project.

[The difficult steering of health system reform: the case of New Brunswick (Canada)]. / Le difficile pilotage d'une réforme d'un système de santé : cas du Nouveau-Brunswick (Canada).

INTRODUCTION: In many developed countries, reforms of public healthcare systems are ongoing but do not always achieve desired results. In this article, we present the history of the healthcare system reform in the Canadian province of New Brunswick with the objective of analyzing its difficult steering by the state, in light of the dynamics between the actors involved. METHOD: Qualitative methods were chosen. Data collection includes semi-structured interviews (N = 39) with representatives of the State, such as health ministers, and other relevant stakeholders, such as managers, citizens or health professionals. RESULTS: The stakeholders were compelled by various aspects of the reform, for example francophone health care services, that had consequences on the trajectory of change. To stay on target, the State must adapt to the dynamic interactions of the actors involved. CONCLUSION: Reforms take place over a long period of time and their programming by the State can be very difficult, as it requires the mobilization of different types of instruments at its disposal. In order to influence the behaviour of the actors concerned, the State must define a goal whose general orientations are agreed upon, succeed in forging bonds of trust and managing resistance, and finally, use standardized data in order to provide a normative framework and evaluate the progress of the reform project.

L'intégration des services buccodentaires dans les soins primaires au Québec.

BACKGROUND: Although integrated care is drawing considerable attention from health care policy makers, little is known about integration of oral health care services into primary care in Quebec. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compile information and compare the aspects of primary oral health care in two public health care organizations. METHOD: An environmental scan was carried out in one rural and one urban primary health care organizations in Quebec. Data were collected from organizations' websites, operational documents, observational notes on facility visits, primary care meeting minutes, online pages of professional orders and face to face interviews (N = 74) and focus groups (N = 5), between November 2016 and October 2018. Thematic and Prior's documentation analyses were used to analyse the data. RESULTS: Three themes were identified: normative aspects of integrated care delivery, integration trajectories, and integration initiatives. In both organizations, the integration of oral health into primary care rooted in public health sectors and dental teams were the key players. While urban center showed informal linkages between dental and non-dental primary care providers, the rural organization succeeded in coordination processes, even though these were also informal. CONCLUSION: The majority of primary oral health care services are delivered in the public health sectors and the sustainability of integration initiatives in other primary health care sectors remains to be demonstrated. A better management of resources, as well as partnerships between public health care organizations and universities, could contribute to this integration.

Cadre stratégique pour soutenir l'évaluation des projets complexes et innovants en santé numérique.

Digital technologies play a central role in strategies to improve access, quality and efficiency of health care and services. However, many digital health projects have failed to become sustainable and spread across health organizations and systems. This situation is partly due to the fact that these projects are often developed and evaluated by reducing the issues linked mainly to the technological dimension. Such tradition has paid little attention to the fact that technology is introduced into pluralistic and complex sociotechnical systems such as health organizations and systems. The aim of this article is to propose practical and theorical, non-prescriptive, elements of reflection that can serve as a basis for evaluating complex and innovative digital health projects. This reflection builds on the lessons learned from the application of a strategic framework for evaluating three major complex and innovative digital health projects in Quebec over the last 15 years.

[Strategic framework to Support the evaluation of complex and innovative digital health projects] / Cadre stratégique pour soutenir l'évaluation des projets complexes et innovants en santé numérique.

Digital technologies play a central role in strategies to improve access, quality and efficiency of health care and services. However, many digital health projects have failed to become sustainable and spread across health organizations and systems. This situation is partly due to the fact that these projects are often developed and evaluated by reducing the issues linked mainly to the technological dimension. Such tradition has paid little attention to the fact that technology is introduced into pluralistic and complex sociotechnical systems such as health organizations and systems. The aim of this article is to propose practical and theorical, non-prescriptive, elements of reflection that can serve as a basis for evaluating complex and innovative digital health projects. This reflection builds on the lessons learned from the application of a strategic framework for evaluating three major complex and innovative digital health projects in Quebec over the last 15 years.

[Integrating oral health care services into primary care in Quebec]. / L'intégration des services buccodentaires dans les soins primaires au Québec.

BACKGROUND: Although integrated care is drawing considerable attention from health care policy makers, little is known about integration of oral health care services into primary care in Quebec. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compile information and compare the aspects of primary oral health care in two public health care organizations. METHOD: An environmental scan was carried out in one rural and one urban primary health care organizations in Quebec. Data were collected from organizations' websites, operational documents, observational notes on facility visits, primary care meeting minutes, online pages of professional orders and face to face interviews (N = 74) and focus groups (N = 5), between November 2016 and October 2018. Thematic and Prior's documentation analyses were used to analyse the data. RESULTS: Three themes were identified: normative aspects of integrated care delivery, integration trajectories, and integration initiatives. In both organizations, the integration of oral health into primary care rooted in public health sectors and dental teams were the key players. While urban center showed informal linkages between dental and non-dental primary care providers, the rural organization succeeded in coordination processes, even though these were also informal. CONCLUSION: The majority of primary oral health care services are delivered in the public health sectors and the sustainability of integration initiatives in other primary health care sectors remains to be demonstrated. A better management of resources, as well as partnerships between public health care organizations and universities, could contribute to this integration.

From theoretical concepts to policies and applied programmes: the landscape of integration of oral health in primary care.

BACKGROUND: Despite its importance, the integration of oral health into primary care is still an emerging practice in the field of health care services. This scoping review aims to map the literature and provide a summary on the conceptual frameworks, policies and programs related to this concept. METHODS: Using the Levac et al. six-stage framework, we performed a systematic search of electronic databases, organizational websites and grey literature from 1978 to April 2016. All relevant original publications with a focus on the integration of oral health into primary care were retrieved. Content analyses were performed to synthesize the results. RESULTS: From a total of 1619 citations, 67 publications were included in the review. Two conceptual frameworks were identified. Policies regarding oral heath integration into primary care were mostly oriented toward common risk factors approach and care coordination processes. In general, oral health integrated care programs were designed in the public health sector and based on partnerships with various private and public health organizations, governmental bodies and academic institutions. These programmes used various strategies to empower oral health integrated care, including building interdisciplinary networks, training non-dental care providers, oral health champion modelling, enabling care linkages and care coordinated process, as well as the use of e-health technologies. The majority of studies on the programs outcomes were descriptive in nature without reporting long-term outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: This scoping review provided a comprehensive overview on the concept of integration of oral health in primary care. The findings identified major gaps in reported programs outcomes mainly because of the lack of related research. However, the results could be considered as a first step in the development of health care policies that support collaborative practices and patient-centred care in the field of primary care sector.

Intentional partnering: a grounded theory study on developing effective partnerships among nurse and physician managers as they co-lead in an evolving healthcare system.

AIM: The aim of this study was to describe the process of how nurse and physician managers in formalized dyads work together to address clinical management issues in the surgical division of one hospital setting. BACKGROUND: Nurse and physician managers are uniquely positioned to co-lead and transform healthcare delivery. However, little is known about how this management dyad functions in the healthcare setting. DESIGN: A constructivist grounded theory approach was used to investigate the process of how nurse and physician managers work together in formalized dyads in an urban Canadian university affiliated teaching hospital. METHODS: Data collection occurred from September 2013-August 2014. Data included participant observation (n = 142 hours) and intensive interviews (n = 36) with nurse-physician manager dyads (12 nurses, 9 physicians) collected in a surgical department. Theoretical sampling was used to elaborate on properties of emerging concepts and categories. RESULTS/FINDINGS: A substantive theory on 'intentional partnering' was generated. Nurses' and physicians' professional agendas, which included their interests and purposes for working with each other served as the starting point of 'intentional partnering'. The theory explains how nurse and physician managers align their professional agendas through the processes of 'accepting mutual necessity', 'daring to risk (together)' and 'constructing a shared responsibility'. Being credible, earning trust and safeguarding respect were fundamental to communicating effectively. CONCLUSION: Intentional partnering elucidates the relational components of working together and the strategizing that occurs as each partner deliberates on what he or she is willing to accept, risk and put into place to reap the benefits of collaborating.

Factors influencing cancer specialists' decision to collaborate with geriatricians in treating older cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: the collaboration between geriatricians and cancer specialists holds significant potential for improving care outcomes for older cancer patients. The realisation of this collaboration partly depends on cancer specialists involving geriatricians in caring for their older patients. Yet only a few studies have focused on understanding the reasons for cancer specialists' choice to involve or not involve geriatricians in this care. OBJECTIVE: this study shed some light on the challenges of collaboration between geriatricians and cancer specialists. It describes the case of a hospital that established a clinic staffed by geriatricians to assist cancer treatment teams. The focus of this article is to identify and explain the patterns of referrals of cancer specialists to this clinic. RESULTS: our study suggests that the referral practices of cancer specialists are considerably influenced by their specialty. The cancer specialists who find more applied value from geriatric assessments tend to refer their patients to geriatricians. Medical oncology is the sub-specialty that struggles the most in practically using information from the assessments to adjust their treatment. Cancer specialists who regularly referred to the clinic were the ones who thought that geriatricians had a unique contribution to patient care with their assessments and also with their intervention in palliative and psychosocial care. These specialists were usually from surgery and radiation oncology. CONCLUSIONS: ageing confers an increased risk of developing cancer. Providing adequate care to older cancer patients is still a challenge. Our study opens the 'black box' of collaboration between two important groups of professionals who may intervene in this care.

How do general practitioners contribute to preventing long-term work disability of their patients suffering from depressive disorders? A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Depression is a major cause of work absenteeism that general practitioners (GPs) face directly since they are responsible for sickness certification and for supervising the return to work (RTW). These activities give GPs a key role in preventing long-term work disability, yet their practices in this regard remain poorly documented. The objectives of this study were therefore to describe GPs' practices with people experiencing work disability due to depressive disorders and explore how GPs' work context may impact on their practices. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured individual interviews with 13 GPs and six mental healthcare professionals in two sub-regions of Quebec. The sub-regions differed in terms of availability of specialized resources offering public mental health services. Data were anonymized and transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis was performed to identify patterns in the GPs' practices and highlight impacting factors in their work context. RESULTS: Our results identified a set of practices common to all the GPs and other practices that differentiated them. Two profiles were defined on the basis of the various practices documented. The first is characterized by the integration of the RTW goal into the treatment goal right from sickness certification and by interventions that include the workplace, albeit indirectly. The second is characterized by a lack of early RTW-oriented action and by interventions that include little workplace involvement. Regardless of the practice profile, actions intended to improve collaboration with key stakeholders remain the exception. However, two characteristics of the work context appear to have an impact: the availability of a dedicated mental health nurse and the regular provision of clinical information by psychotherapists. These conditions are rarely present but tend to make a significant difference for the GPs. CONCLUSIONS: Our results highlight the significant role of GPs in the prevention of long-term work disability and their need for support through the organization of mental health services at the primary care level.

Reforming primary healthcare: from public policy to organizational change.

PURPOSE: Governments everywhere are implementing reform to improve primary care. However, the existence of a high degree of professional autonomy makes large-scale change difficult to achieve. The purpose of this paper is to elucidate the change dynamics and the involvement of professionals in a primary healthcare reform initiative carried out in the Canadian province of Quebec. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: An empirical approach was used to investigate change processes from the inception of a public policy to the execution of changes in professional practices. The data were analysed from a multi-level, combined contextualist-processual perspective. Results are based on a longitudinal multiple-case study of five family medicine groups, which was informed by over 100 interviews, questionnaires, and documentary analysis. FINDINGS: The results illustrate the multiple processes observed with the introduction of planned large-scale change in primary care services. The analysis of change content revealed that similar post-change states concealed variations between groups in the scale of their respective changes. The analysis also demonstrated more precisely how change evolved through the introduction of "intermediate change" and how cycles of prescribed and emergent mechanisms distinctively drove change process and change content, from the emergence of the public policy to the change in primary care service delivery. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS: This research was conducted among a limited number of early policy adopters. However, given the international interest in turning to the medical profession to improve primary care, the results offer avenues for both policy development and implementation. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: The findings offer practical insights for those studying and managing large-scale transformations. They provide a better understanding of how deliberate reforms coexist with professional autonomy through an intertwining of change content and processes. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: This research is one of few studies to examine a primary care reform from emergence to implementation using a longitudinal multi-level design.

[Multimorbidity and primary care: Emergence of new forms of network organization]. / Multimorbidité et soins primaires : émergence de nouvelles formes d'organisation en réseau.

OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to analyse the adaptive strategies used by primary care professionals to provide more adapted and continuous services to patients with more than one chronic disease. METHODS: A qualitative case study was conducted in a primary care structure (GMF in Québec). Data were derived from two sources: semi-structured interviews and documents. Based on our thematic analysis of data, we illustrate the adaptive processes at play. RESULTS: Our analysis identified the challenges raised by the increased prevalence of patients with more than one chronic disease and how they influence adaptive strategic initiatives from professionals at the following levels: (1) the patients themselves, (2) the professional-patient relationship, (3) the relationships between professionals of the GMF (4) the relationships between the GMF and other healthcare organizations. The description of these phenomena illustrates the dynamic emergence ofa network form of organization. CONCLUSION: This phenomenon leads to transformation of the core of the healthcare production system. A deeper understanding of its emergence, impacts and management is necessary.

[Integrating mental health and addiction services: the encounter of two worlds]. / Intégration des services en santé mentale et en toxicomanie: processus de rencontre de deux mondes.

OBJECTIVE: The needfor integrated services to treat co-occurring disorders is now recognized. Specialised clinics have now been created for this purpose. This study analysed the integration process that occurred in a particular clinic in order to identify the strategies and means used and their overall impact. METHODS: We conducted a longitudinal case study. Data collection was based on three sources: semi-structured interviews, observations and documents. It took place over a period of 3years and covered the first 6 years of the clinic transformation process. We analysed data from a process perspective. The analysis was also validated by informants. RESULTS: Our analysis shows that the pursuit of integration is associated with important challenges at various levels: patient populations, professional practices, structural framework, inter-organizational relationships. These challenges were encountered right from the creation of the clinic. Various strategies and approaches were used to reduce the tensions raised by these challenges and had a considerable impact on the integration process. However, our analysis reveals that integration is an ongoing process that is never completely achieved. In fact, challenges are never completely resolved, but tend to be transformed, raising new tensions to which members of the organization respond with new strategies and means to ensure a continuing integration process. CONCLUSIONS: These resultsforce us to reconsider the integration of services, not as a fixed result but rather as an object of change emerging from a complex process with an unknown outcome. Four important implicationsfor practice are derived from these results.

How healthcare organisations can act as institutional entrepreneurs in a context of change.

PURPOSE: The aim of this paper is to illustrate and discuss how healthcare organisations can act as institutional entrepreneurs in a context of change. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: The authors conducted an in-depth longitudinal case study (2005-2008) of a healthcare organisation in the province of Quebec, Canada. Data collection consisted of real-time observations of senior managers (n = 87), interviews (n = 24) with decision-makers and secondary data analysis of documents. FINDINGS: The paper reports on the extent to which entrepreneurial healthcare organisations can be a driving force in the creation of a new practice. The authors analyse the development of a diabetes reference centre by a healthcare organisation acting as an institutional entrepreneur that illustrates the conceptualisation of an innovation and the mobilisation of resources to implement it and to influence other actors in the field. The authors discuss the case in reference to three stages of change: emergence, implementation and diffusion. The results illustrate the different strategies used by managers to advance their proposed projects. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS: This study helps to better understand the dynamics of mandated change in a mature field such as healthcare and the roles played by organisations in this process. By adopting a proactive strategy, a healthcare organisation can play an active role and strongly influence the evolution of its field. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: This paper is one of only a few to analyse strategies used by healthcare organisations in the context of mandated change.

Advanced practice nursing, health care teams, and perceptions of team effectiveness.

This article summarizes the results of an extensive review of the organizational and health care literature of advanced practice nursing (APN) roles, health care teams, and perceptions of team effectiveness. Teams have a long history in health care. Managers play an important role in mobilizing resources, guiding expectations of APN roles in teams and within organizations, and facilitating team process. Researchers have identified a number of advantages to the addition of APN roles in health care teams. The process within health care teams are dynamic and responsive to their surrounding environment. It appears that teams and perceptions of team effectiveness need to be understood in the broader context in which the teams are situated. Key team process are identified for team members to perceive their team as effective. The concepts of teamwork, perceptions of team effectiveness, and the introduction of APN roles in teams have been studied disparately. An exploration of the links between these concepts may further our understanding the health care team's perceptions of team effectiveness when APN roles are introduced. Such knowledge could contribute to the effective deployment of APN roles in health care teams and improve the delivery of health care services to patients and families.

Conceptual framework of acute care nurse practitioner role enactment, boundary work, and perceptions of team effectiveness.

AIM: This article describes a new conceptual framework for acute care nurse practitioner role enactment, boundary work and perceptions of team effectiveness. BACKGROUND: Acute care nurse practitioners contribute positively to patient care by enacting an expanded scope of practise. Researchers have found both positive and negative reactions to the introduction of acute care nurse practitioners in healthcare teams. The process of role enactment, shifting role boundaries, and perceptions of team effectiveness has been studied disparately. A framework linking team structures and processes to desirable outcomes is needed. DATA SOURCES: Literature was obtained by searching CINAHL, PsycInfo, MedLine, PubMed, British Nursing Index, Cochrane Library, JSTOR Archive, Web of Science, and Google Scholar from 1985-2010. A descriptive multiple-case study was completed from March 2009-May 2009. DISCUSSION: A new conceptual framework describing how role enactment and boundary work affect perceptions of team effectiveness was developed by combining theoretical and empirical sources. The framework proposes proximal indicators used by team members to assess their team's performance. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: The framework identifies the inter-related dimensions and concepts that different stakeholders need to consider when introducing nurse practitioners in healthcare teams. Further study is needed to identify team-level outcomes that reflect the contributions of all providers to quality patient care, and explore the patients' and families' perceptions of team effectiveness following the introduction of acute care nurse practitioners. CONCLUSION: The new framework can guide decision-making and research related to the structures, processes, and outcomes of nurse practitioner roles in healthcare teams.

[Using telemedicine to improve chronic disease monitoring]. / L'utilisation des télésoins à domicile pour un meilleur suivi des maladies chroniques.

AIM: The purpose of this study was to understand how home telecare technologies can be used to improve services for people with chronic diseases. METHODS: Canadian elders with at least one of the targeted chronic diseases (COPD, heart failure, hypertension, diabetes) were asked to use telehomecare equipment. The data needed to assess the implementation process and to monitor outcomes were collected through participatory observation, documentary analysis and interviews. RESULTS: The study found that the technology has a number of benefits for patients, particularly in terms of access to health services. By enabling patients to access more information about their health, the use of the technology, combined with an educational program, contributes to increasing their capacity for self-management. The results also indicate that the telehomecare equipment had a positive impact on clinical decision-making. By facilitating health professionals' access to information and expertise, it was found to promote interprofessional practice. The study found that telehomecare technology has an organizational impact on practice and requires organizational adaptation, the form of which will depend on local organizational and clinical settings. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that telehomecare technology helps to create conditions that need to be met by health care organizations in order to improve service delivery to people with chronic diseases, particularly with regard to interprofessional collaboration, health professionals' access to information and expertise and active patient participation. However, the successful implementation of the technology requires a detailed analysis of the settings in which it is used.

Boundary work and the introduction of acute care nurse practitioners in healthcare teams.

AIM: This article is a report of a study of boundary work following the introduction of an acute care nurse practitioner role in healthcare teams. BACKGROUND: Acute care nurse practitioners enacting their roles in healthcare teams have faced a number of challenges including a mix of positive and negative views of the acute care nurse practitioner role from healthcare team members and acute care nurse practitioner roles crossing the boundaries between the medical and nursing professions. Understanding the process by which the boundaries between professions changed following the introduction of an acute care nurse practitioner role was important since this could affect scope of practice and the team's ability to give patient care. METHODS: The study was conducted in two university-affiliated teaching hospitals in Canada. A descriptive multiple case study design was used. Data were collected from March to May 2009. RESULTS: Participants (N = 59) described boundary work as a process that included: (1) creating space; (2) loss of a valued function; (3) trust; (4) interpersonal dynamics; and (5) time. The development of trust among team members was essential. The co-location of team members working on common projects, and medical and nursing leadership facilitated boundary work. CONCLUSION: The micro-level processes of boundary work in healthcare teams have important implications for the development of full scope of practice for acute care nurse practitioners, effective inter-professional teamwork and the integration of new roles in healthcare systems. Future research needs to be undertaken in different contexts, and with patients and families.

Sensemaking: a driving force behind the integration of professional practices.

PURPOSE: There has been considerable effort in recent years to link and integrate professional services more closely for patients with comorbidities. However, difficulties persist, especially at the clinical level. This study aims to shed light on these difficulties by examining the process of sensemaking in professionals directly involved in this integration. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: The authors conducted an eight-year longitudinal case study of an organization specializing in mental health and substance abuse. Different data collection methods were used, including 34 interviews conducted between 2003 and 2009, observations and document analysis. The authors performed a qualitative analysis of the data using a processual perspective. FINDINGS: This paper provides empirical insights about the nature of the sensemaking process in which professionals collectively participate and the effects of this process on the evolution of integrated services. It suggests that the development of integrated practices results from an evolutional and collective process of constructing meanings that is rooted in the work activities of the professionals involved. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: By drawing attention to the capacity of professionals to shape the projects they are implementing, this study questions the capacity of managers to actually manage such a process. In order to obtain the expected benefits of integration projects, such emergent dynamics must first be recognized and then supported. Only then can thought be given to mastering them. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS: The fact that this is a single case study is not a limitation per se, although it does raise the issue of the transferability of results. Replicating the study in other contexts would verify the applicability of the authors' conclusions. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: This study offers a fresh perspective on the difficulties generally encountered at the clinical level when trying to integrate services. It makes a significant contribution to work on the dynamics of sensemaking in organizational life.