Modulating effects of capsaicin on glucose homeostasis and the underlying mechanism.

Abnormal glucose homeostasis is linked to a variety of metabolic syndromes, such as insulin resistance, obesity, type-2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Maintenance of normal glucose homeostasis is important for the body to keep normal biological functions. As the major bioactive ingredient in chili peppers responsible for the pungent flavor, capsaicin has been reported to effectively improve glucose homeostasis with low cytotoxicity. In this review, the modulating effects of capsaicin on glucose homeostasis in cell models, animal models and human trials are summarized through both TRPV1 dependent and TRPV1 independent pathways. The relevant molecular mechanisms underlying its regulatory effects are also evaluated. Understanding the effects and mechanisms of capsaicin on glucose metabolism could provide theoretical evidence for its application in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Applications of multi-omics techniques to unravel the fermentation process and the flavor formation mechanism in fermented foods.

Fermented foods are important components of the human diet. There is increasing awareness of abundant nutritional and functional properties present in fermented foods that arise from the transformation of substrates by microbial communities. Thus, it is significant to unravel the microbial communities and mechanisms of characteristic flavor formation occurring during fermentation. There has been rapid development of high-throughput and other omics technologies, such as metaproteomics and metabolomics, and as a result, there is growing recognition of the importance of integrating these approaches. The successful applications of multi-omics approaches and bioinformatics analyses have provided a solid foundation for exploring the fermentation process. Compared with single-omics, multi-omics analyses more accurately delineate microbial and molecular features, thus they are more apt to reveal the mechanisms of fermentation. This review introduces fermented foods and an overview of single-omics technologies - including metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, metaproteomics, and metabolomics. We also discuss integrated multi-omics and bioinformatic analyses and their role in recent research progress related to fermented foods, as well as summarize the main potential pathways involved in certain fermented foods. In the future, multilayered analyses of multi-omics data should be conducted to enable better understanding of flavor formation mechanisms in fermented foods.

Surfactant-free oleogel-based emulsion stabilized by co-assembled ceramide/lecithin crystals with controlled digestibility.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing interest in the development of oleogel-based emulsions. However, they usually contained surfactants for stabilization, especially small-molecular weight surfactants, which may have adverse health impacts. RESULTS: Herein, a surfactant-free oleogel-based emulsion stabilized by co-assembled ceramide/lecithin (CER/LEC) crystals was developed. The formation and stabilization mechanisms were explored. The different molar ratios of gelator (LEC and CER) in emulsions resulted in different crystal morphology, crystallinity as well as different emulsion properties. This suggested that appropriate crystallinity, crystal size, and interfacial distribution of these crystals provided higher surface coverage against droplets coalescence, thus better emulsion stabilization. Both X-ray diffractograms and contact angle results confirmed that the crystals which were primarily responsible for emulsion stabilization, are co-assembled crystals consisted of both gelators (CER and LEC). Furthermore, the percentage of free fatty acids (FFAs%) results revealed a negative relationship between lipid digestibility and crystal concentration. CONCLUSIONS: This strategy greatly enriched surfactant-free oleogel-based emulsion formulations, as well as their potential applications in healthy lipid-based products and novel food delivery systems with controlled lipid digestibility. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

A novel strategy for preparation of rice bran protein oleogels based on high internal phase emulsion template.

BACKGROUND: Oleogels have been extensively explored as fat substitutes with no trans fatty acids and low saturated fatty acids in recent years as a result of increased health problems found to be related to the intake of trans and saturated fatty acids. RESULTS: Herein, high internal phase emulsion (HIPE) stabilized by rice bran protein (RBP) was prepared and further utilized as a template for preparation of RBP oleogels. RBP HIPE with the strongest rheological properties was obtained at pH 5.0 as a result of appropriate structural deformation, surface charge and a high three-phase contact angle at this pH. However, RBP oleogels prepared at pH 9.0 exhibited the highest yield stress after drying process. At this pH, RBP showed higher resistance to deformation caused by water evaporation. This highlighted the importance of structural stability of protein network on rheological properties of the resultant oleogels. Furthermore, with an increase in drying temperature, RBP oleogels exhibited higher yield stress and gel strength because water was better removed as a result of an enhanced capability to overcome the capillary pressure of emulsion. CONCLUSION: The present study further revealed the structure-activity relationship between protein, HIPE and oleogel, and also provided theoretical support for the development of protein-based oleogel. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Gelation and foaming properties of fatty acid mixtures in sunflower oil.

BACKGROUND: The development of lipid-lowering products has become the focus of the food industry due to increasing consumer awareness of the relationship between diet and health. Recently, edible oleofoams have drawn attention due to their enormous potential in reformulating food products with reduced fat content and unique mouth feel. RESULTS: We have developed an edible oleofoam system by whipping oleogel composed of fatty acid mixtures in sunflower oil. The crystal morphology, gelation properties, and foaming properties of these oleogels could be tailored by changing the ratio of stearic acid (SA) and myristic acid (MA). Specifically, SA/MA = 2:8 (2S8M) was demonstrated to have superior foaming capability and foam stability, likely due to the densely packed and uniformly distributed crystals formed at this fatty acid ratio. Small lipid crystals in 2S8M absorbed to the air-oil interface more efficiently, and together with the strengthened network established in the bulk phase, helped stabilize the foam structure. As a result, the 2S8M oleofoam showed excellent foaming properties: strong plasticity, significantly increased overrun (up to 63.56 ± 2.58%), and significantly improved foam stability. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) results indicated that the diffraction pattern observed for 2S8M samples at d-spacing of 4.20 and 3.79 Å was related to the characteristic peak of ß' type crystals, which were responsible for the enhanced foaming capability of 2S8M oleogels. Oleophobic property of 2S8M increased, as indicated by wettability in oil phase, which could possibly drive crystals to the air-oil interface. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlighted the importance of lipid crystal morphology in determining the whippability of oleogels. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of Momordica saponin- and Cyclocarya paliurus polysaccharide-enriched beverages on oxidative stress and fat accumulation in Caenorhabditis elegans.

BACKGROUND: As an edible and medicinal herb in Chinese folk medicine, Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinskaja leaves are traditionally widely used in the treatment of metabolic disorders. The vegetable Momordica charantia L. has been consumed worldwide for thousands of years as a traditional drug due to its activities against obesity and diabetes. In view of the therapeutic value of Momordica saponins (MSs) and C. paliurus polysaccharides (CPPs), an independently developed MSs- and CPPs-containing beverage (MC) was evaluated for its efficacy in controlling oxidative stress and obesity in Caenorhabditis elegans. RESULTS: First, we found that MC could promote the nuclear localization of DAF-16 and the translation of SOD-3. Further exploring its antioxidant properties, the oxidative stress by-products reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde, and nonesterified fatty acids were significantly inhibited in C. elegans. Moreover, damage due to diseases related to oxidative stress (age pigments and neurodegenerative diseases) was alleviated. Furthermore, fat accumulation was significantly reduced in normal and high-fat models. Finally, the lipid-lowering effects of MC might involve reductions in the size and number of lipid droplets without impairing basic physiological functions in C. elegans. CONCLUSION: These results provide promising data indicating MC as an innovative health beverage for the pharmacological management of oxidative stress and obesity. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Molecular motifs encoding self-assembly of peptide fibers into molecular gels.

Peptides are a promising class of gelators, due to their structural simplicity, biocompatibility and versatility. Peptides were synthesized based on four amino acids: leucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan. These peptide gelators, with systematic structural variances in side chain structure and chain length, were investigated using Hansen solubility parameters to clarify molecular features that promote gelation in a wide array of solvents. It is of utmost importance to combine both changes to structural motifs and solvent in simultaneous studies to obtain a global perspective of molecular gelation. It was found that cyclization of symmetric dipeptides, into 2,5-diketopiperazines, drastically altered the gelation ability of the dipeptides. C-l-LL and C-l-YY, which are among the smallest peptide LMOGs reported to date, are robust gelators with a large radius of gelation (13.44 MPa1/2 and 13.90 MPa1/2, respectively), and even outperformed l-FF (5.61 MPa1/2). Interestingly, both linear dipeptides (l-FF and l-LL) gelled similar solvents, yet when cyclized only cyclo-dityrosine was a robust gelator, while cyclo-diphenylalanine was not. Changes in the side chains drastically affected the crystal morphology of the resultant gels. Symmetric cyclo dipeptides of leucine and tyrosine were capable of forming extremely high aspect ratio fibers in numerous solvents, which represent new molecular motifs capable of driving self-assembly.

Viscoelastic Emulsion Improved the Bioaccessibility and Oral Bioavailability of Crystalline Compound: A Mechanistic Study Using in Vitro and in Vivo Models.

The oral bioavailability of hydrophobic compound is usually limited by the poor aqueous solubility in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Various oral formulations were developed to enhance the systemic concentration of such molecules. Moreover, compounds with high melting temperature that appear as insoluble crystals imposed a great challenge to the development of oral vehicle. Polymethoxyflavone, an emerging category of bioactive compounds with potent therapeutic efficacies, were characterized as having a hydrophobic and highly crystalline chemical structure. To enhance the oral dosing efficiency of polymethoxyflavone, a viscoelastic emulsion system with a high static viscosity was developed and optimized using tangeretin, one of the most abundant polymethoxyflavones found in natural sources, as a modeling compound. In the present study, different in vitro and in vivo models were used to mechanistically evaluate the effect of emulsification on oral bioavailability of tangeretin. In vitro lipolysis revealed that emulsified tangeretin was digested and became bioaccessible much faster than unprocessed tangeretin oil suspension. By simulating the entire human GI tract, TNO's gastrointestinal model (TIM-1) is a valuable tool to mechanistically study the effect of emulsification on the digestion events that lead to a better oral bioavailability of tangeretin. TIM-1 result indicated that tangeretin was absorbed in the upper GI tract. Thus, a higher oral bioavailability can be expected if the compound becomes bioaccessible in the intestinal lumen soon after dosing. In vivo pharmacokinetics analysis on mice again confirmed that the oral bioavailability of tangeretin increased 2.3 fold when incorporated in the viscoelastic emulsion than unformulated oil suspension. By using the combination of in vitro and in vivo models introduced in this work, the mechanism that underlie the effect of viscoelastic emulsion on the oral bioavailability of tangeretin was well-elucidated.

Comparing and correlating solubility parameters governing the self-assembly of molecular gels using 1,3:2,4-dibenzylidene sorbitol as the gelator.

Solvent properties play a central role in mediating the aggregation and self-assembly of molecular gelators and their growth into fibers. Numerous attempts have been made to correlate the solubility parameters of solvents and gelation abilities of molecular gelators, but a comprehensive comparison of the most important parameters has yet to appear. Here, the degree to which partition coefficients (log P), Henry's law constants (HLC), dipole moments, static relative permittivities (ε(r)), solvatochromic E(T)(30) parameters, Kamlet-Taft parameters (ß, α, and π), Catalan's solvatochromic parameters (SPP, SB, and SA), Hildebrand solubility parameters (δ(i)), and Hansen solubility parameters (δ(p), δ(d), δ(h)) and the associated Hansen distance (R(ij)) of 62 solvents (covering a wide range of properties) can be correlated with the self-assembly and gelation of 1,3:2,4-dibenzylidene sorbitol (DBS) gelation, a classic molecular gelator, is assessed systematically. The approach presented describes the basis for each of the parameters and how it can be applied. As such, it is an instructional blueprint for how to assess the appropriate type of solvent parameter for use with other molecular gelators as well as with molecules forming other types of self-assembled materials. The results also reveal several important insights into the factors favoring the gelation of solvents by DBS. The ability of a solvent to accept or donate a hydrogen bond is much more important than solvent polarity in determining whether mixtures with DBS become solutions, clear gels, or opaque gels. Thermodynamically derived parameters could not be correlated to the physical properties of the molecular gels unless they were dissected into their individual HSPs. The DBS solvent phases tend to cluster in regions of Hansen space and are highly influenced by the hydrogen-bonding HSP, δ(h). It is also found that the fate of this molecular gelator, unlike that of polymers, is influenced not only by the magnitude of the distance between the HSPs for DBS and the HSPs of the solvent, R(ij), but also by the directionality of R(ij): if the solvent has a larger hydrogen-bonding HSP (indicating stronger H-bonding) than that of the DBS, then clear gels are formed; opaque gels form when the solvent has a lower δ(h) than does DBS.

Salicylic acid (SA) bioaccessibility from SA-based poly(anhydride-ester).

The bioaccessibility of salicylic acid (SA) can be effectively modified by incorporating the pharmacological compound directly into polymers such as poly(anhydride-esters). After simulated digestion conditions, the bioaccessibility of SA was observed to be statistically different (p < 0.0001) in each sample: 55.5 ± 2.0% for free SA, 31.2 ± 2.4% the SA-diglycolic acid polymer precursor (SADG), and 21.2 ± 3.1% for SADG-P (polymer). The release rates followed a zero-order release rate that was dependent on several factors, including (1) solubilization rate, (2) macroscopic erosion of the powdered polymer, (3) hydrolytic cleavage of the anhydride bonds, and (4) subsequent hydrolysis of the polymer precursor (SADG) to SA and diglycolic acid.

Interfacial crystallized oleogel emulsion with improved freeze-thaw stability and tribological properties: Influence of cooling rate.

In this study, the influence of cooling rate on the freeze-thaw stability, rheological and tribological properties of interfacial crystalized oleogel emulsion was investigated. Results showed that slower cooling rate could promote formation of larger crystals and stronger network in oleogels. Additionally, oleogel emulsions showed higher freeze-thaw stability than those stabilized solely by emulsifiers. The slower cooling rate resulted in larger crystals adsorbed at the droplet surface. This led to greater steric hindrance that prevented the migration of oil droplets with higher resistance to disruption by ice crystals. The rheological and tribological measurements suggested that with appropriate amount of crystals, the tribological properties were better maintained for emulsions prepared at slow cooling rate after freeze-thaw treatment. This strategy greatly enriched oleogel emulsion formulations and provided important clues for potential applications in food products involved with freeze-thaw treatment.

Bioavailability, Health Benefits, and Delivery Systems of Allicin: A Review.

Garlic has been used worldwide as a spice due to its pungent taste and flavor-enhancing properties. As a main biologically active component of the freshly crushed garlic extracts, allicin (diallyl thiosulfinate) is converted from alliin by alliinase upon damaging the garlic clove, which has been reported to have many potent beneficial biological functions. In this work, allicin formation, stability, bioavailability, and metabolism process are examined and summarized. The biological functions of allicin and potential underlying mechanisms are reviewed and discussed, including antioxidation, anti-inflammation, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, antineurodegenerative, antitumor, and antiobesity effects. Novel delivery systems of allicin with enhanced stability, encapsulation efficiency, and bioavailability are also evaluated, such as nanoparticles, gels, liposomes, and micelles. This study could provide a comprehensive understanding of the physiochemical properties and health benefits of allicin, with great potential for further applications in the food and nutraceutical industries.

Capsaicin ameliorates diet-induced disturbances of glucose homeostasis and gut microbiota in mice associated with the circadian clock.

Glucose metabolism disorder triggered by a high-energy diet is associated with circadian disruption in the brain, peripheral tissues and gut microbiota. The present study aims to investigate the regulating effects of capsaicin (CAP) on the diet-induced disturbances of glucose homeostasis and gut microbiota in respect of circadian rhythm-related mechanisms. Our results indicated that CAP significantly ameliorated glucose metabolism disorder in mice induced by a high-fat and high-fructose diet (HFFD). The rhythmic expressions of circadian clock genes (Bmal1, Clock, and others) and glucose metabolism-related genes (Pgc-1α, Glut2, G6pc, and Pepck) in the liver disrupted by an abnormal diet were also recovered by CAP. Microbial studies using 16S rDNA sequencing revealed that CAP modulated the structure and composition of gut microbiota and improved the circadian oscillations of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes at the phylum level and Allobaculum, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, and Alistipes at the genus level. Correlation analysis indicated that a close correlation existed between intestinal microbiota, hepatic circadian gene expressions and the level of glucose metabolism-related factors, indicating that CAP could alleviate HFFD-induced disturbances of glucose metabolism and gut microbiota associated with circadian clock related mechanisms.

Construction of interfacial crystallized oleogel emulsion with improved thermal stability.

In this study, we reported a facile strategy to produce an interfacial crystallized oleogel emulsion for improved thermal stability. The interfacial crystallization of ceramide (non-interfacial active oleogelator) was achieved by addition of a surface active compound, which was demonstrated by interfacial rheology tests and polarized light microscopy. For successfully prepared interfacial crystallized emulsions, smaller particle size was observed when the gelator concentration was lower. However, better thermal stability was achieved when oleogelator concentration was higher than 1 wt%. Results from differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy suggested that the interfacial adsorption of ceramide was due to its co-crystallization with the emulsifier driven by hydrogen bonds formed by multiple sites. It provided appropriate crystallinity and steric repulsion for oleogel emulsions against oil droplet coalescence during heating process. This strategy greatly enriches oleogel emulsion formulations and their potential applications in food products involved with thermal treatment.

Four novel sleep-promoting peptides screened and identified from bovine casein hydrolysates using a patch-clamp model in vitro and Caenorhabditis elegans in vivo.

Bovine casein hydrolysates (CHs) have demonstrated sleep-promoting activities. However, only few peptides were identified from CHs with sleep-promoting effects. In this work, an in vitro model based on the electrophysiology of brain neurons was established for the evaluation of sleep-promoting effects. Based on this model, four novel peptides were systematically separated from CH. Compared with the control group, the action potential (AP) inhibitory rate of four peptides increased by 38.63%, 340.93%, 233.28%, and 900%, respectively, and the membrane potential (MP) change rate of four peptides increased by 319.78%, 503.09%, 381.22%, and 547.10%, respectively. These results suggested that four peptides have sleep-promoting activities. Furthermore, Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) sleep behavior results indicated that all the four peptides could significantly increase the total sleep duration, the motionless sleep duration of C. elegans, implying that these four peptides can significantly improve sleep. The LC-MS/MS results showed that the primary structures of these novel peptides were HQGLPQEVLNENLLR (αs1-CN, f8-22), YKVPQLEIVPNSAEER (αs1-CN, f104-119), HPIKHQGLPQEVLNENLLR (αs1-CN, f4-22), and VPQLEIVPNSAEER (αs1-CN, f106-119). Overall, this study revealed that the four novel sleep-promoting peptides identified were strong candidates as potential functional ingredients in the development of sleep-promoting products.

Characterization of the key aroma compounds in soy sauce by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry, headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry, odor activity value, and aroma recombination and omission analysis.

Most previous studies on volatile compounds in soy sauce were performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In this study, the volatile compounds of high-salt liquid-state fermentation soy sauce (HLFSS) were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively by GC-MS and headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS). One hundred and seventy-four substances were detected using the two instruments, 87 by HS-GC-IMS and 127 by GC-MS. Aldehydes (26), ketones (28), esters (29), and alcohols (26) were the main compounds in HLFSS. In addition, ethyl pyruvate, (E)-2-pentenal and diethyl propanedioate were detected by HS-GC-IMS, which were previously not detected in HLFSS. Forty-eight aromatics including 34 key ones were identified by gas chromatography-olfactometry. Phenylacetaldehyde, methional, 2-methylbutanal, 1-octen-3-ol, ethyl acetate, 2-ethyl-4-hydroxy-5-methyl-3(2H)-furanone, 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone and 4-ethyl guaiacol were identified as the main aroma compounds in HLFSS by aroma recombination and omission test. This study laid foundation for developing flavor assessment standards for soy sauce.

Influence of positional isomers on the macroscale and nanoscale architectures of aggregates of racemic hydroxyoctadecanoic acids in their molecular gel, dispersion, and solid states.

Inter/intramolecular hydrogen bonding of a series of hydroxystearic acids (HSAs) are investigated. Self-assembly of molecular gels obtained from these fatty acids with isomeric hydroxyl groups is influenced by the position of the secondary hydroxyl group. 2-Hydroxystearic acid (2HSA) does not form a molecular dimer, as indicated by FT-IR, and growth along the secondary axis is inhibited because the secondary hydroxyl group is unable to form intermolecular H-bonds. As well, the XRD long spacing is shorter than the dimer length of hydroxystearic acid. 3-Hydroxystearic acid (3HSA) forms an acyclic dimer, and the hydroxyl groups are unable to hydrogen bond, preventing the crystal structure from growing along the secondary axis. Finally, isomers 6HSA, 8HSA, 10HSA, 12HSA, and 14HSA have similar XRD and FT-IR patterns, suggesting that these molecules all self-assemble in a similar fashion. The monomers form a carboxylic cyclic dimer, and the secondary hydroxyl group promotes growth along the secondary axis.

Non-isothermal crystallization kinetics study of multi-component oleogels.

In this study, the influence of non-isothermal conditions on multi-component oleogel (lecithin, LEC and ceramide, CER) was systematically investigated by rheological characterization, polarized light microscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry. Jeziorny and Mo models were applied to reveal the crystallization behavior. When the cooling rate increased, the LEC/CER oleogel exhibited lower G' and larger crystal size. The crystallization kinetics showed that at lower cooling rate, the LEC/CER co-assembled crystals grew at 2-3 dimensions by one step crystallization process. While at high cooling rate, the crystals first grew at 1-2 dimensions through self-assembly of CER. Then, the primary CER crystals served as nuclei for further co-assembly of CER/LEC growing in 2-3 dimensions. Our findings indicated that the cooling rate not only modulated the crystal structure and physical properties, but also the assembly mechanism of multi-component oleogels. Such information is useful for engineering the functional properties of oleogel-based lipidic materials.

Modulation of the spatial distribution of crystallizable emulsifiers in Pickering double emulsions.

The unique role of the spatial distribution of crystallizable emulsifiers in regulating the structure and properties of double emulsions has been gradually recognized. Herein, we utilized crystallizable monoglycerides of different carbon chain length (GMS/GMP/GML) to "structuring" the intermediate oil phase of double emulsions during a two-stage emulsification process followed by a cooling treatment. A ternary eigenvector (I, M, E) based on the numerical processing of polarization images was invented to quantitatively characterize the distribution pattern of monoglycerides. Crystallization kinetics analysis and dissipative particle dynamic simulation were then employed to reveal the regulatory mechanism for the site-specific interface distribution behavior. Results suggested that the distribution pattern of monoglycerides could be pricesly tuned as the internal interface-, external interface- or oil-phase dominated one in double emulsions. The surface activity as well as crystallization rates of monoglycerides dominated the interfacial distribution kinetics, and the cooling gradient along the interface region further regulated their interfacial distribution potential. Specificly, shorter crystallization time (t1/2) made GMP molecules rapidly solidified in oil phase, leading to the oil phase domninate crystallization (0, M, 0), whereas, slow crystallization rate rendered GML and GMS with sufficient time to diffuse to the interface, thus forming interfacial crystals ((I, 0, 0) and (0, 0, E)). The sensitivity of GML to cooling gradient along the interface region led to its preferential external interface distribution under cooling treatment. The presented study explored novel strategies that can be used in characterizing and manipulating the distribution pattern of crystallizable emulsifiers in multi-interface emulsion systems.

Effects of the Distribution Site of Crystallizable Emulsifiers on the Gastrointestinal Digestion Behavior of Double Emulsions.

Double emulsions (DEs) are promising delivery vehicles for the protective and programmed release of bioactive compounds. Herein, DEs with monoglycerides crystallized at the internal- or external interface or oil phase were fabricated. The results suggested that the crystallization site of monoglycerides exerts a significant role in retarding the structural degradation and lipid digestion of DEs by affecting the available contact area of lipase. At the initial stage of intestinal digestion, compared with noncrystalline DEs (82.1%, 3.7 min), the burst release of internal markers in the internal interface crystallized emulsions was decreased by 42.4% and the lag time of free fatty acid (FFA) release was delayed by 5.8 min in the external interface crystallized emulsions. The structural integrity and digestion kinetics of the external interface crystallized DEs were synchronized with the retention time of the interfacial crystals. Therefore, crystallizable emulsifiers exhibit unique and fine regulatory effects on the digestive properties of emulsions.