Diffusible crosslinkers generate directed forces in microtubule networks.

Cytoskeletal remodeling is essential to eukaryotic cell division and morphogenesis. The mechanical forces driving the restructuring are attributed to the action of molecular motors and the dynamics of cytoskeletal filaments, which both consume chemical energy. By contrast, non-enzymatic filament crosslinkers are regarded as mere friction-generating entities. Here, we experimentally demonstrate that diffusible microtubule crosslinkers of the Ase1/PRC1/Map65 family generate directed microtubule sliding when confined between partially overlapping microtubules. The Ase1-generated forces, directly measured by optical tweezers to be in the piconewton-range, were sufficient to antagonize motor-protein driven microtubule sliding. Force generation is quantitatively explained by the entropic expansion of confined Ase1 molecules diffusing within the microtubule overlaps. The thermal motion of crosslinkers is thus harnessed to generate mechanical work analogous to compressed gas propelling a piston in a cylinder. As confinement of diffusible proteins is ubiquitous in cells, the associated entropic forces are likely of importance for cellular mechanics beyond cytoskeletal networks.

Tubulin polyglutamylation differentially regulates microtubule-interacting proteins.

Tubulin posttranslational modifications have been predicted to control cytoskeletal functions by coordinating the molecular interactions between microtubules and their associating proteins. A prominent tubulin modification in neurons is polyglutamylation, the deregulation of which causes neurodegeneration. Yet, the underlying molecular mechanisms have remained elusive. Here, using in-vitro reconstitution, we determine how polyglutamylation generated by the two predominant neuronal polyglutamylases, TTLL1 and TTLL7, specifically modulates the activities of three major microtubule interactors: the microtubule-associated protein Tau, the microtubule-severing enzyme katanin and the molecular motor kinesin-1. We demonstrate that the unique modification patterns generated by TTLL1 and TTLL7 differentially impact those three effector proteins, thus allowing for their selective regulation. Given that our experiments were performed with brain tubulin from mouse models in which physiological levels and patterns of polyglutamylation were altered by the genetic knockout of the main modifying enzymes, our quantitative measurements provide direct mechanistic insight into how polyglutamylation could selectively control microtubule interactions in neurons.

Microtubule lattice spacing governs cohesive envelope formation of tau family proteins.

Tau is an intrinsically disordered microtubule-associated protein (MAP) implicated in neurodegenerative disease. On microtubules, tau molecules segregate into two kinetically distinct phases, consisting of either independently diffusing molecules or interacting molecules that form cohesive 'envelopes' around microtubules. Envelopes differentially regulate lattice accessibility for other MAPs, but the mechanism of envelope formation remains unclear. Here we find that tau envelopes form cooperatively, locally altering the spacing of tubulin dimers within the microtubule lattice. Envelope formation compacted the underlying lattice, whereas lattice extension induced tau envelope disassembly. Investigating other members of the tau family, we find that MAP2 similarly forms envelopes governed by lattice spacing, whereas MAP4 cannot. Envelopes differentially biased motor protein movement, suggesting that tau family members could spatially divide the microtubule surface into functionally distinct regions. We conclude that the interdependent allostery between lattice spacing and cooperative envelope formation provides the molecular basis for spatial regulation of microtubule-based processes by tau and MAP2.

Cytoskeletal organization through multivalent interactions.

The cytoskeleton consists of polymeric protein filaments with periodic lattices displaying identical binding sites, which establish a multivalent platform for the binding of a plethora of filament-associated ligand proteins. Multivalent ligand proteins can tether themselves to the filaments through one of their binding sites, resulting in an enhanced reaction kinetics for the remaining binding sites. In this Opinion, we discuss a number of cytoskeletal phenomena underpinned by such multivalent interactions, namely (1) generation of entropic forces by filament crosslinkers, (2) processivity of molecular motors, (3) spatial sorting of proteins, and (4) concentration-dependent unbinding of filament-associated proteins. These examples highlight that cytoskeletal filaments constitute the basis for the formation of microenvironments, which cytoskeletal ligand proteins can associate with and, once engaged, can act within at altered reaction kinetics. We thus argue that multivalency is one of the properties crucial for the functionality of the cytoskeleton.

Changes in microtubule overlap length regulate kinesin-14-driven microtubule sliding.

Microtubule-crosslinking motor proteins, which slide antiparallel microtubules, are required for the remodeling of microtubule networks. Hitherto, all microtubule-crosslinking motors have been shown to slide microtubules at a constant velocity until no overlap remains between them, leading to the breakdown of the initial microtubule geometry. Here, we show in vitro that the sliding velocity of microtubules, driven by human kinesin-14 HSET, decreases when microtubules start to slide apart, resulting in the maintenance of finite-length microtubule overlaps. We quantitatively explain this feedback using the local interaction kinetics of HSET with overlapping microtubules that cause retention of HSET in shortening overlaps. Consequently, the increased HSET density in the overlaps leads to a density-dependent decrease in sliding velocity and the generation of an entropic force that antagonizes the force exerted by the motors. Our results demonstrate that a spatial arrangement of microtubules can regulate the collective action of molecular motors through the local alteration of their individual interaction kinetics.

Entropic forces drive contraction of cytoskeletal networks.

The cytoskeleton is a network of interconnected protein filaments, which provide a three-dimensional scaffold for cells. Remodeling of the cytoskeleton is important for key cellular processes, such as cell motility, division, or morphogenesis. This remodeling is traditionally considered to be driven exclusively by processes consuming chemical energy, such as the dynamics of the filaments or the action of molecular motors. Here, we review two mechanisms of cytoskeletal network remodeling that are independent of the consumption of chemical energy. In both cases directed motion of overlapping filaments is driven by entropic forces, which arise from harnessing thermal energy present in solution. Entropic forces are induced either by macromolecular crowding agents or by diffusible crosslinkers confined to the regions where filaments overlap. Both mechanisms increase filament overlap length and lead to the contraction of filament networks. These force-generating mechanisms, together with the chemical energy-dependent mechanisms, need to be considered for the comprehensive quantitative picture of the remodeling of cytoskeletal networks in cells.

CKAP5 enables formation of persistent actin bundles templated by dynamically instable microtubules.

Cytoskeletal rearrangements and crosstalk between microtubules and actin filaments are vital for living organisms. Recently, an abundantly present microtubule polymerase, CKAP5 (XMAP215 homolog), has been reported to play a role in mediating crosstalk between microtubules and actin filaments in the neuronal growth cones. However, the molecular mechanism of this process is unknown. Here, we demonstrate, in a reconstituted system, that CKAP5 enables the formation of persistent actin bundles templated by dynamically instable microtubules. We explain the templating by the difference in CKAP5 binding to microtubules and actin filaments. Binding to the microtubule lattice with higher affinity, CKAP5 enables the formation of actin bundles exclusively on the microtubule lattice, at CKAP5 concentrations insufficient to support any actin bundling in the absence of microtubules. Strikingly, when the microtubules depolymerize, actin bundles prevail at the positions predetermined by the microtubules. We propose that the local abundance of available CKAP5-binding sites in actin bundles allows the retention of CKAP5, resulting in persisting actin bundles. In line with our observations, we found that reducing CKAP5 levels in vivo results in a decrease in actin-microtubule co-localization in growth cones and specifically decreases actin intensity at microtubule plus ends. This readily suggests a mechanism explaining how exploratory microtubules set the positions of actin bundles, for example, in cytoskeleton-rich neuronal growth cones.

Optineurin-facilitated axonal mitochondria delivery promotes neuroprotection and axon regeneration.

Optineurin (OPTN) mutations are linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and normal tension glaucoma (NTG), but a relevant animal model is lacking, and the molecular mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration are unknown. We found that OPTN C-terminus truncation (OPTN∆C) causes late-onset neurodegeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), optic nerve (ON), and spinal cord motor neurons, preceded by a striking decrease of axonal mitochondria. Surprisingly, we discover that OPTN directly interacts with both microtubules and the mitochondrial transport complex TRAK1/KIF5B, stabilizing them for proper anterograde axonal mitochondrial transport, in a C-terminus dependent manner. Encouragingly, overexpressing OPTN/TRAK1/KIF5B reverses not only OPTN truncation-induced, but also ocular hypertension-induced neurodegeneration, and promotes striking ON regeneration. Therefore, in addition to generating new animal models for NTG and ALS, our results establish OPTN as a novel facilitator of the microtubule-dependent mitochondrial transport necessary for adequate axonal mitochondria delivery, and its loss as the likely molecular mechanism of neurodegeneration.

MAP9/MAPH-9 supports axonemal microtubule doublets and modulates motor movement.

Microtubule doublets (MTDs) comprise an incomplete microtubule (B-tubule) attached to the side of a complete cylindrical microtubule. These compound microtubules are conserved in cilia across the tree of life; however, the mechanisms by which MTDs form and are maintained in vivo remain poorly understood. Here, we identify microtubule-associated protein 9 (MAP9) as an MTD-associated protein. We demonstrate that C. elegans MAPH-9, a MAP9 homolog, is present during MTD assembly and localizes exclusively to MTDs, a preference that is in part mediated by tubulin polyglutamylation. We find that loss of MAPH-9 causes ultrastructural MTD defects, including shortened and/or squashed B-tubules with reduced numbers of protofilaments, dysregulated axonemal motor velocity, and perturbed cilia function. Because we find that the mammalian ortholog MAP9 localizes to axonemes in cultured mammalian cells and mouse tissues, we propose that MAP9/MAPH-9 plays a conserved role in regulating ciliary motors and supporting the structure of axonemal MTDs.

MAP9/MAPH-9 supports axonemal microtubule doublets and modulates motor movement.

Microtubule doublets (MTDs) are a well conserved compound microtubule structure found primarily in cilia. However, the mechanisms by which MTDs form and are maintained in vivo remain poorly understood. Here, we characterize microtubule-associated protein 9 (MAP9) as a novel MTD-associated protein. We demonstrate that C. elegans MAPH-9, a MAP9 homolog, is present during MTD assembly and localizes exclusively to MTDs, a preference that is in part mediated by tubulin polyglutamylation. Loss of MAPH-9 caused ultrastructural MTD defects, dysregulated axonemal motor velocity, and perturbed cilia function. As we found that the mammalian ortholog MAP9 localized to axonemes in cultured mammalian cells and mouse tissues, we propose that MAP9/MAPH-9 plays a conserved role in supporting the structure of axonemal MTDs and regulating ciliary motors.

Kinesin's step dissected with single-motor FRET.

The motor protein Kinesin-1 drives intracellular transport along microtubules, with each of its two motor domains taking 16-nm steps in a hand-over-hand fashion. The way in which a single-motor domain moves during a step is unknown. Here, we use Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between fluorescent labels on both motor domains of a single kinesin. This approach allows us to resolve the relative distance between the motor domains and their relative orientation, on the submillisecond timescale, during processive stepping. We observe transitions between high and low FRET values for certain kinesin constructs, depending on the location of the labels. These results reveal that, during a step, a kinesin motor domain dwells in a well-defined intermediate position for approximately 3 ms.

Molecular motors: Turning kinesin-1 into a microtubule destroyer.

Kinesin-1 is a typical microtubule-associated molecular motor that drives cargo transport in the cell. New work now shows that small changes in its structure can bring out unforeseen powers in this motor, turning it into a microtubule destroyer and highlighting the interdependencies between the biological motor and its track.

In Vitro Reconstitution of Molecular Motor-Driven Mitochondrial Transport.

Intracellular trafficking of organelles driven by molecular motors underlies essential cellular processes. Mitochondria, the powerhouses of the cell, are one of the major cargoes of molecular motors. Efficient distribution of mitochondria ensures cellular fitness while defects in this process contribute to severe pathologies, such as neurodegenerative diseases. Reconstitution of the mitochondrial microtubule-based transport in vitro in a bottom-up approach provides a powerful tool to investigate the mitochondrial trafficking machinery in a controlled environment in the absence of complex intracellular interactions. In this chapter, we describe the procedures for achieving such reconstitution of mitochondrial transport.

Improvement of the signal to noise ratio for fluorescent imaging in microfluidic chips.

Microfluidics systems can be fabricated in various ways using original silicon glass systems, with easy Si processing and surface modifications for subsequent applications such as cell seeding and their study. Fluorescent imaging of cells became a standard technique for the investigation of cell behavior. Unfortunately, high sensitivity fluorescent imaging, e.g., using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, is problematic in these microfluidic systems because the uneven surfaces of the silicon channels' bottoms affect light penetration through the optical filters. In this work, we study the nature of the phenomenon, finding that the problem can be rectified by using a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate, defining the channel depth by the thickness of the top Si layer, and halting the etching at the buried SiO2 layer. Then the fluorescent background signal drops by = 5 times, corresponding to the limit of detection drop from = 0.05 mM to = 50 nM of fluorescein. We demonstrate the importance of a flat surface using TIRF-based single-molecule detection, improving the signal to a noise ratio more than 18 times compared to a conventional Si wafer. Overall, using very high-quality SOI substrates pays off, as it improves the fluorescence image quality due to the increase in signal-to-noise ratio. Concerning the cost of microfluidic device fabrication-design, mask fabrication, wafer processing, and device testing-the initial SOI wafer cost is marginal, and using it improves the system performance.

Lab-on-chip microscope platform for electro-manipulation of a dense microtubules network.

Pulsed electric field (PEF) technology is promising for the manipulation of biomolecular components and has potential applications in biomedicine and bionanotechnology. Microtubules, nanoscopic tubular structures self-assembled from protein tubulin, serve as important components in basic cellular processes as well as in engineered biomolecular nanosystems. Recent studies in cell-based models have demonstrated that PEF affects the cytoskeleton, including microtubules. However, the direct effects of PEF on microtubules are not clear. In this work, we developed a lab-on-a-chip platform integrated with a total internal reflection fluorescence microscope system to elucidate the PEF effects on a microtubules network mimicking the cell-like density of microtubules. The designed platform enables the delivery of short (microsecond-scale), high-field-strength ([Formula: see text] 25 kV/cm) electric pulses far from the electrode/electrolyte interface. We showed that microsecond PEF is capable of overcoming the non-covalent microtubule bonding force to the substrate and translocating the microtubules. This microsecond PEF effect combined with macromolecular crowding led to aggregation of microtubules. Our results expand the toolbox of bioelectronics technologies and electromagnetic tools for the manipulation of biomolecular nanoscopic systems and contribute to the understanding of microsecond PEF effects on a microtubule cytoskeleton.

Fast photothermal spatial light modulation for quantitative phase imaging at the nanoscale.

Spatial light modulators have become an essential tool for advanced microscopy, enabling breakthroughs in 3D, phase, and super-resolution imaging. However, continuous spatial-light modulation that is capable of capturing sub-millisecond microscopic motion without diffraction artifacts and polarization dependence is challenging. Here we present a photothermal spatial light modulator (PT-SLM) enabling fast phase imaging for nanoscopic 3D reconstruction. The PT-SLM can generate a step-like wavefront change, free of diffraction artifacts, with a high transmittance and a modulation efficiency independent of light polarization. We achieve a phase-shift > π and a response time as short as 70 µs with a theoretical limit in the sub microsecond range. We used the PT-SLM to perform quantitative phase imaging of sub-diffractional species to decipher the 3D nanoscopic displacement of microtubules and study the trajectory of a diffusive microtubule-associated protein, providing insights into the mechanism of protein navigation through a complex microtubule network.

Nanoscopic Structural Fluctuations of Disassembling Microtubules Revealed by Label-Free Super-Resolution Microscopy.

Microtubules are cytoskeletal polymers of tubulin dimers assembled into protofilaments that constitute nanotubes undergoing periods of assembly and disassembly. Static electron micrographs suggest a structural transition of straight protofilaments into curved ones occurring at the tips of disassembling microtubules. However, these structural transitions have never been observed and the process of microtubule disassembly thus remains unclear. Here, label-free optical microscopy capable of selective imaging of the transient structural changes of protofilaments at the tip of a disassembling microtubule is introduced. Upon induced disassembly, the transition of ordered protofilaments into a disordered conformation is resolved at the tip of the microtubule. Imaging the unbinding of individual tubulin oligomers from the microtubule tip reveals transient pauses and relapses in the disassembly, concurrent with increased organization of protofilament segments at the microtubule tip. These findings show that microtubule disassembly is a discrete process and suggest a stochastic mechanism of switching from the disassembly to the assembly phase.

Fast Leaps between Millisecond Confinements Govern Ase1 Diffusion along Microtubules.

Diffusion is the most fundamental mode of protein translocation within cells. Confined diffusion of proteins along the electrostatic potential constituted by the surface of microtubules, although modeled meticulously in molecular dynamics simulations, has not been experimentally observed in real-time. Here, interferometric scattering microscopy is used to directly visualize the movement of the microtubule-associated protein Ase1 along the microtubule surface at nanometer and microsecond resolution. Millisecond confinements of Ase1 and fast leaps between these positions of dwelling preferentially occurring along the microtubule protofilaments are resolved, revealing Ase1's mode of diffusive translocation along the microtubule's periodic surface. The derived interaction potential closely matches the tubulin-dimer periodicity and the distribution of the electrostatic potential on the microtubule lattice. It is anticipated that mapping the interaction landscapes for different proteins on microtubules, finding plausible energetic barriers of different positioning and heights, can provide valuable insights into regulating the dynamics of essential cytoskeletal processes, such as intracellular cargo trafficking, cell division, and morphogenesis, all of which rely on diffusive translocation of proteins along microtubules.

Anillin propels myosin-independent constriction of actin rings.

Constriction of the cytokinetic ring, a circular structure of actin filaments, is an essential step during cell division. Mechanical forces driving the constriction are attributed to myosin motor proteins, which slide actin filaments along each other. However, in multiple organisms, ring constriction has been reported to be myosin independent. How actin rings constrict in the absence of motor activity remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that anillin, a non-motor actin crosslinker, indispensable during cytokinesis, autonomously propels the contractility of actin bundles. Anillin generates contractile forces of tens of pico-Newtons to maximise the lengths of overlaps between bundled actin filaments. The contractility is enhanced by actin disassembly. When multiple actin filaments are arranged into a ring, this contractility leads to ring constriction. Our results indicate that passive actin crosslinkers can substitute for the activity of molecular motors to generate contractile forces in a variety of actin networks, including the cytokinetic ring.

ATP and magnesium drive conformational changes of the Na+/K+-ATPase cytoplasmic headpiece.

Conformational changes of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase isolated large cytoplasmic segment connecting transmembrane helices M4 and M5 (C45) induced by the interaction with enzyme ligands (i.e. Mg(2+) and/or ATP) were investigated by means of the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence measurement and molecular dynamic simulations. Our data revealed that this model system consisting of only two domains retained the ability to adopt open or closed conformation, i.e. behavior, which is expected from the crystal structures of relative Ca(2+)-ATPase from sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum for the corresponding part of the entire enzyme. Our data revealed that the C45 is found in the closed conformation in the absence of any ligand, in the presence of Mg(2+) only, or in the simultaneous presence of Mg(2+) and ATP. Binding of the ATP alone (i.e. in the absence of Mg(2+)) induced open conformation of the C45. The fact that the transmembrane part of the enzyme was absent in our experiments suggested that the observed conformational changes are consequences only of the interaction with ATP or Mg(2+) and may not be related to the transported cations binding/release, as generally believed. Our data are consistent with the model, where ATP binding to the low-affinity site induces conformational change of the cytoplasmic part of the enzyme, traditionally attributed to E2-->E1 transition, and subsequent Mg(2+) binding to the enzyme-ATP complex induces in turn conformational change traditionally attributed to E1-->E2 transition.