A Novel Endocrine Role for the BAT-Released Lipokine 12,13-diHOME to Mediate Cardiac Function.

BACKGROUND: Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is an important tissue for thermogenesis, making it a potential target to decrease the risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, and recent studies have also identified BAT as an endocrine organ. Although BAT has been implicated to be protective in cardiovascular disease, to this point there are no studies that identify a direct role for BAT to mediate cardiac function. METHODS: To determine the role of BAT on cardiac function, we utilized a model of BAT transplantation. We then performed lipidomics and identified an increase in the lipokine 12,13-dihydroxy-9Z-octadecenoic acid (12,13-diHOME). We utilized a mouse model with sustained overexpression of 12,13-diHOME and investigated the role of 12,13-diHOME in a nitric oxide synthase type 1 deficient (NOS1-/-) mouse and in isolated cardiomyocytes to determine effects on function and respiration. We also investigated 12,13-diHOME in a cohort of human patients with heart disease. RESULTS: Here, we determined that transplantation of BAT (+BAT) improves cardiac function via the release of the lipokine 12,13-diHOME. Sustained overexpression of 12,13-diHOME using tissue nanotransfection negated the deleterious effects of a high-fat diet on cardiac function and remodeling, and acute injection of 12,13-diHOME increased cardiac hemodynamics via direct effects on the cardiomyocyte. Furthermore, incubation of cardiomyocytes with 12,13-diHOME increased mitochondrial respiration. The effects of 12,13-diHOME were absent in NOS1-/- mice and cardiomyocytes. We also provide the first evidence that 12,13-diHOME is decreased in human patients with heart disease. CONCLUSIONS: Our results identify an endocrine role for BAT to enhance cardiac function that is mediated by regulation of calcium cycling via 12,13-diHOME and NOS1.

Exercise-induced adaptations to white and brown adipose tissue.

The beneficial effects of exercise on skeletal muscle and the cardiovascular system have long been known. Recent studies have focused on investigating the effects of exercise on adipose tissue and the effects that these exercise-induced adaptations have on overall metabolic health. Examination of exercise-induced adaptations in both white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT) has revealed marked differences in each tissue with exercise. In WAT, there are changes to both subcutaneous WAT (scWAT) and visceral WAT (vWAT), including decreased adipocyte size and lipid content, increased expression of metabolic genes, altered secretion of adipokines and increased mitochondrial activity. Adaptations specific to scWAT include lipidomic remodeling of phospholipids and, in rodents, the beiging of scWAT. The changes to BAT are less clear: studies evaluating the effect of exercise on the BAT of humans and rodents have revealed contradictory data, making this an important area of current investigation. In this Review, we discuss the exercise-induced changes to WAT and BAT that have been reported by different studies and highlight the current questions in this field.

Exercise-induced 3'-sialyllactose in breast milk is a critical mediator to improve metabolic health and cardiac function in mouse offspring.

Poor maternal environments, such as under- or overnutrition, can increase the risk for the development of obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in offspring1-9. Recent studies in animal models have shown that maternal exercise before and during pregnancy abolishes the age-related development of impaired glucose metabolism10-15, decreased cardiovascular function16 and increased adiposity11,15; however, the underlying mechanisms for maternal exercise to improve offspring's health have not been identified. In the present study, we identify an exercise-induced increase in the oligosaccharide 3'-sialyllactose (3'-SL) in milk in humans and mice, and show that the beneficial effects of maternal exercise on mouse offspring's metabolic health and cardiac function are mediated by 3'-SL. In global 3'-SL knockout mice (3'-SL-/-), maternal exercise training failed to improve offspring metabolic health or cardiac function in mice. There was no beneficial effect of maternal exercise on wild-type offspring who consumed milk from exercise-trained 3'-SL-/- dams, whereas supplementing 3'-SL during lactation to wild-type mice improved metabolic health and cardiac function in offspring during adulthood. Importantly, supplementation of 3'-SL negated the detrimental effects of a high-fat diet on body composition and metabolism. The present study reveals a critical role for the oligosaccharide 3'-SL in milk to mediate the effects of maternal exercise on offspring's health. 3'-SL supplementation is a potential therapeutic approach to combat the development of obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

Exercise Training Induces Depot-Specific Adaptations to White and Brown Adipose Tissue.

Exercise affects whole-body metabolism through adaptations to various tissues, including adipose tissue (AT). Recent studies investigated exercise-induced adaptations to AT, focusing on inguinal white adipose tissue (WAT), perigonadal WAT, and interscapular brown adipose tissue (iBAT). Although these AT depots play important roles in metabolism, they account for only ∼50% of the AT mass in a mouse. Here, we investigated the effects of 3 weeks of exercise training on all 14 AT depots. Exercise induced depot-specific effects in genes involved in mitochondrial activity, glucose metabolism, and fatty acid uptake and oxidation in each adipose tissue (AT) depot. These data demonstrate that exercise training results in unique responses in each AT depot; identifying the depot-specific adaptations to AT in response to exercise is essential to determine how AT contributes to the overall beneficial effect of exercise.

Paternal Exercise Improves Glucose Metabolism in Adult Offspring.

Poor paternal diet has emerged as a risk factor for metabolic disease in offspring, and alterations in sperm may be a major mechanism mediating these detrimental effects of diet. Although exercise in the general population is known to improve health, the effects of paternal exercise on sperm and offspring metabolic health are largely unknown. Here, we studied 7-week-old C57BL/6 male mice fed a chow or high-fat diet and housed either in static cages (sedentary) or cages with attached running wheels (exercise trained). After 3 weeks, one cohort of males was sacrificed and cauda sperm obtained, while the other cohort was bred with chow-fed sedentary C57BL/6 females. Offspring were chow fed, sedentary, and studied during the first year of life. We found that high-fat feeding of sires impairs glucose tolerance and increases the percentage of fat mass in both male and female offspring at 52 weeks of age. Strikingly, paternal exercise suppresses the effects of paternal high-fat diet on offspring, reversing the observed impairment in glucose tolerance, percentage of fat mass, and glucose uptake in skeletal muscles of the offspring. These changes in offspring phenotype are accompanied by changes in sperm physiology, as, for example, high-fat feeding results in decreased sperm motility, an effect normalized in males subject to exercise training. Deep sequencing of sperm reveals pronounced effects of exercise training on multiple classes of small RNAs, as multiple changes to the sperm RNA payload observed in animals consuming a high-fat diet are suppressed by exercise training. Thus, voluntary exercise training of male mice results in pronounced improvements in the metabolic health of adult male and female offspring. We provide the first in-depth analysis of small RNAs in sperm from exercise-trained males, revealing a marked change in the levels of multiple small RNAs with the potential to alter phenotypes in the next generation.

ßIV-Spectrin regulates STAT3 targeting to tune cardiac response to pressure overload.

Heart failure (HF) remains a major source of morbidity and mortality in the US. The multifunctional Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) has emerged as a critical regulator of cardiac hypertrophy and failure, although the mechanisms remain unclear. Previous studies have established that the cytoskeletal protein ßIV-spectrin coordinates local CaMKII signaling. Here, we sought to determine the role of a spectrin-CaMKII complex in maladaptive remodeling in HF. Chronic pressure overload (6 weeks of transaortic constriction [TAC]) induced a decrease in cardiac function in WT mice but not in animals expressing truncated ßIV-spectrin lacking spectrin-CaMKII interaction (qv3J mice). Underlying the observed differences in function was an unexpected differential regulation of STAT3-related genes in qv3J TAC hearts. In vitro experiments demonstrated that ßIV-spectrin serves as a target for CaMKII phosphorylation, which regulates its stability. Cardiac-specific ßIV-spectrin-KO (ßIV-cKO) mice showed STAT3 dysregulation, fibrosis, and decreased cardiac function at baseline, similar to what was observed with TAC in WT mice. STAT3 inhibition restored normal cardiac structure and function in ßIV-cKO and WT TAC hearts. Our studies identify a spectrin-based complex essential for regulation of the cardiac response to chronic pressure overload. We anticipate that strategies targeting the new spectrin-based "statosome" will be effective at suppressing maladaptive remodeling in response to chronic stress.

12,13-diHOME: An Exercise-Induced Lipokine that Increases Skeletal Muscle Fatty Acid Uptake.

Circulating factors released from tissues during exercise have been hypothesized to mediate some of the health benefits of regular physical activity. Lipokines are circulating lipid species that have recently been reported to affect metabolism in response to cold. Here, lipidomics analysis revealed that a bout of moderate-intensity exercise causes a pronounced increase in the circulating lipid 12,13-dihydroxy-9Z-octadecenoic acid (12,13-diHOME) in male, female, young, old, sedentary, and active human subjects. In mice, both a single bout of exercise and exercise training increased circulating 12,13-diHOME and surgical removal of brown adipose tissue (BAT) negated the increase in 12,13-diHOME, suggesting that BAT is the tissue source for exercise-stimulated 12,13-diHOME. Acute 12,13-diHOME treatment of mice in vivo increased skeletal muscle fatty acid uptake and oxidation, but not glucose uptake. These data reveal that lipokines are novel exercise-stimulated circulating factors that may contribute to the metabolic changes that occur with physical exercise.

Lipidomic Adaptations in White and Brown Adipose Tissue in Response to Exercise Demonstrate Molecular Species-Specific Remodeling.

Exercise improves whole-body metabolic health through adaptations to various tissues, including adipose tissue, but the effects of exercise training on the lipidome of white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT) are unknown. Here, we utilize MS/MSALL shotgun lipidomics to determine the molecular signatures of exercise-induced adaptations to subcutaneous WAT (scWAT) and BAT. Three weeks of exercise training decrease specific molecular species of phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylcholines (PC), phosphatidylethanolamines (PE), and phosphatidylserines (PS) in scWAT and increase specific molecular species of PC and PE in BAT. Exercise also decreases most triacylglycerols (TAGs) in scWAT and BAT. In summary, exercise-induced changes to the scWAT and BAT lipidome are highly specific to certain molecular lipid species, indicating that changes in tissue lipid content reflect selective remodeling in scWAT and BAT of both phospholipids and glycerol lipids in response to exercise training, thus providing a comprehensive resource for future studies of lipid metabolism pathways.

Maternal Exercise Improves Glucose Tolerance in Female Offspring.

Poor maternal diet can lead to metabolic disease in offspring, whereas maternal exercise may have beneficial effects on offspring health. In this study, we determined ifmaternal exercise could reverse the detrimental effects of maternal high-fat feeding on offspring metabolism of female mice. C57BL/6 female mice were fed a chow (21%) or high-fat (60%) diet and further divided by housing in static cages or cages with running wheels for 2 weeks prior to breeding and throughout gestation. Females were bred with chow-fed sedentary C57BL/6 males. High fat-fed sedentary dams produced female offspring with impaired glucose tolerance compared with offspring of chow-fed dams throughout their first year of life, an effect not present in the offspring from high fat-fed dams that had trained. Offspring from high fat-fed trained dams had normalized glucose tolerance, decreased fasting insulin, and decreased adiposity. Liver metabolic function, measured by hepatic glucose production in isolated hepatocytes, hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps, liver triglyceride content, and liver enzyme expression, was enhanced in offspring from trained dams. In conclusion, maternal exercise negates the detrimental effects of a maternal high-fat diet on glucose tolerance and hepatocyte glucose metabolism in female offspring. The ability of maternal exercise to improve the metabolic health of female offspring is important, as this intervention could combat the transmission of obesity and diabetes to subsequent generations.

Identification and characterization of a supraclavicular brown adipose tissue in mice.

A fundamental challenge to our understanding of brown adipose tissue (BAT) is the lack of an animal model that faithfully represents human BAT. Such a model is essential for direct assessment of the function and therapeutic potential of BAT depots in humans. In human adults, most of the thermoactive BAT depots are located in the supraclavicular region of the neck, while mouse studies focus on depots located in the interscapular region of the torso. We recently discovered BAT depots that are located in a region analogous to that of human supraclavicular BAT (scBAT). Here, we report that the mouse scBAT depot has morphological characteristics of classical BAT, possesses the potential for high thermogenic activity, and expresses a gene signature that is similar to that of human scBAT. Taken together, our studies reveal a mouse BAT depot that represents human BAT and provides a unique tool for developing new translatable approaches for utilizing human scBAT.