Did Early Pleistocene hominins control hammer strike angles when making stone tools?

In the study of Early Pleistocene stone artifacts, researchers have made considerable progress in reconstructing the technical decisions of hominins by examining various aspects of lithic technology, such as reduction sequences, hammer selection, platform preparation, core management, and raw material selection. By comparison, our understanding of the ways in which Early Pleistocene hominins controlled the delivery and application of percussive force during flaking remains limited. In this study, we focus on a key aspect of force delivery in stone knapping, namely the hammerstone striking angle (or the angle of blow), which has been shown to play a significant role in determining the knapping outcome. Using a dataset consists of 12 Early Pleistocene flake assemblages dated from 1.95 Ma to 1.4 Ma, we examined temporal patterns of the hammer striking angle by quantifying the bulb angle, a property of the flake's Hertzian cone that reflects the hammer striking angle used in flake production. We further included a Middle Paleolithic flake assemblage as a point of comparison from a later time period. In the Early Pleistocene dataset, we observed an increased association between the bulb angle and other flake variables related to flake size over time, a pattern similarly found in the Middle Paleolithic assemblage. These findings suggest that, towards the Oldowan-Acheulean transition, hominins began to systematically adjust the hammer striking angle in accordance with platform variables to detach flakes of different sizes more effectively, implying the development of a more comprehensive understanding of the role of the angle of blow in flake formation by ∼1.5 Ma.

A modified lung ultrasound score to evaluate short-term clinical outcomes of bronchopulmonary dysplasia.

BACKGROUND: Lung ultrasound (LUS) is a useful tool for assessing the severity of lung disease, without radiation exposure. However, there is little data on the practicality of LUS in assessing the severity of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and evaluating short-term clinical outcomes. We adapted a LUS score to evaluate BPD severity and assess the reliability of mLUS score correlated with short-term clinical outcomes. METHODS: Prospective diagnostic accuracy study was designed to enroll preterm infants with gestational age < 34 weeks. Lung ultrasonography was performed at 36 weeks postmenstrual age. The diagnostic and predictive values of new modified lung ultrasound (mLUS) scores based on eight standard sections were compared with classic lung ultrasound (cLUS) scores. RESULTS: A total of 128 infants were enrolled in this cohort, including 30 without BPD; 31 with mild BPD; 23 with moderate BPD and 44 with severe BPD. The mLUS score was significantly correlated with the short-term clinical outcomes, superior to cLUS score. The mLUS score well correlated with moderate and severe BPD (AUC = 0.813, 95% CI 0.739-0.888) and severe BPD (AUC = 0.801, 95% CI 0.728-0.875), which were superior to cLUS score. The ROC analysis of mLUS score to evaluate the other short-term outcomes also showed significant superiority to cLUS score. The optimal cutoff points for mLUS score were 14 for moderate and severe BPD and 16 for severe BPD. CONCLUSIONS: The mLUS score correlates significantly with short-term clinical outcomes and well evaluates these outcomes in preterm infants.

The risk factors of preterm birth: A multicentre case-control survey in China in 2018.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the risk profile of preterm birth (PTB) in 2018 in China. METHOD: A prospective multicentre case-control study was conducted in 15 hospitals located in seven provinces throughout three geographical areas (the Eastern, South-Central and North-Western regions) in China. A total of 3147 preterm (<37+0 weeks) and 3147 term (37+0 to 41+6 weeks) live-birth mothers were included. Designed questionnaires were used to investigate maternal and fetal information. We calculated multivariable logistic regression and population attributable risk (PAR). RESULTS: Iatrogenic PTB accounted for 48.1% of preterm mothers. Multivariable analysis showed PTB was significantly associated with six categories of maternal and fetal factors, adverse life-style and psychological conditions (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.063, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.601-2.657) had the highest PAR% (60.1%). High school and below education level (PAR% = 25.8%), living in town or village (PAR% = 24.4%), low pregnant weight gain (PAR% = 16.8%), hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (aOR: 5.010, 95% CI: 4.039-6.216, PAR% = 15.3%), placental abnormality (aOR: 4.242, 95% CI: 3.454-5.211, PAR% = 14.1%) and multiple pregnancy (aOR: 10.990, 95% CI: 7.743-15.599, PAR% = 11.8%) were significantly associated with PTB with high PAR% value. CONCLUSION: The main risk factors for PTB in China were placental abnormality, hypertensive disorders in pregnancy and multiple pregnancy. Adverse life-style and psychological conditions and socio-economic disadvantage had high public health significance.

Operationalizing niche construction theory with stone tools.

One of the greatest difficulties with evolutionary approaches in the study of stone tools (lithics) has been finding a mechanism for tying culture and biology in a way that preserves human agency and operates at scales that are visible in the archaeological record. The concept of niche construction, whereby organisms actively construct their environments and change the conditions for selection, could provide a solution to this problem. In this review, we evaluate the utility of niche construction theory (NCT) for stone tool archaeology. We apply NCT to lithics both as part of the "extended phenotype" and as residuals or precipitates of other niche-constructing activities, suggesting ways in which archaeologists can employ niche construction feedbacks to generate testable hypotheses about stone tool use. Finally, we conclude that, as far as its applicability to lithic archaeology, NCT compares favorably to other prominent evolutionary approaches, such as human behavioral ecology and dual-inheritance theory.

Sodium Thiosulfate Ameliorates Renovascular Hypertension-Induced Renal Dysfunction and Injury in Rats.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Arterial stenosis activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system subsequently resulting in renovascular hypertension (RVHT) and renal oxidative injury. We explored the effect of sodium thiosulfate (STS, Na2S2O3), a developed antioxidant in clinical trial, on RVHT-induced hypertension and renal oxidative injury in rats. METHODS: We induced RVHT in male Wistar rats with bilaterally partial ligation of renal arteries in the 2-kidney 2-clip model. We evaluated the STS effect on RVHT-induced oxidative injury and apoptosis by a chemiluminescence amplification method, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: We found STS displayed a dose-dependent antioxidant H2O2 activity and adapted the maximal scavenging H2O2 activity of STS at the dosage of 0.1 g/kg intraperitoneally 3 times/week for 4 weeks in RVHT rats. RVHT induced a significant elevation of arterial blood pressure, blood reactive oxygen species amount, neutrophil infiltration, 4-HNE and NADPH oxidase gp91 expression, Bax/Bcl-2/poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)-mediated apoptosis formation, blue Masson-stained fibrosis, and urinary protein level. STS treatment significantly reduced hypertension, oxidative stress, neutrophil infiltration, fibrosis, and Bax/Bcl-2/PARP-mediated apoptosis formation and depressed the urinary protein level in the RVHT models. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that STS treatment could ameliorate RVHT hypertension and renal oxidative injury through antioxidant, antifibrotic, and antiapoptotic mechanisms.

The Etiology of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Death in Extremely Low Birth Weight Infants: A Multicenter Survey in China.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to identify causes of neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) death in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants less than 1,000 g admitted in Chinese tertiary NICUs. STUDY DESIGN: We retrospectively collected data on 607 ELBW infants from 39 level III NICUs from July 2016 to June 2019. The primary causes of death were compared among different gestation age, postnatal age groups, and areas with variable economic status. RESULTS: Among all 607 ELBW NICU deaths, 47.1% were multiple gestation with high rate of in vitro fertilization (IVF) (43.3%); 53.4 and 34.1% received any or full course of antenatal corticosteroid (ACS). The most common causes of ELBW NICU death were respiratory distress syndrome-related neonatal respiratory failure (RDS-NRF, 43.5%), severe infection (19.1%), necrotizing enterocolitis or bowel perforation (9.4%), severe central nervous system injury (8.4%), and bronchopulmonary dysplasia-related respiratory failure (BPD-NRF, 7.7%). Causes of ELBW NICU death varied across postnatal age groups. RDS-NRF was the leading cause of early neonatal death, while severe infection in late neonatal death and BPD in postneonatal EBLW NICU death. RDS-NRF, severe brain injury, and asphyxia were most likely to die at early neonatal age (median age [interquartile range], 2 [0-5], 6 [3-9], and 3 [1-6] days, respectively) while severe infection and necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) at late neonatal age, BPD-NRF at postneonatal age. CONCLUSION: In Chinese tertiary NICUs, the major causes of death in extremely low birth weight infants were RDS, infection, NEC, brain injury and BPD, and they varied with postnatal age. Developing specific prevention strategies for identified causes of death in ELBW NICU may potentially improve ELBW survival.

Deriving a sub-nanomolar affinity peptide from TAP to enable smFRET analysis of RNA polymerase II complexes.

Our capability to visualize protein complexes such as RNA polymerase II (pol II) by single-molecule imaging techniques has largely been hampered by the absence of a simple bio-orthogonal approach for selective labeling with a fluorescent probe. Here, we modify the existing calmodulin-binding peptide (CBP) in the widely used Tandem Affinity Purification (TAP) tag to endow it with a high affinity for calmodulin (CaM) and use dye-CaM to conduct site-specific labeling of pol II. To demonstrate the single molecule applicability of this approach, we labeled the C-terminus of the Rpb9 subunit of pol II with donor-CaM and a site in TFIIF with an acceptor to generate a FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer) pair in the pol II-TFIIF complex. We then used total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF) with alternating excitation to measure the single molecule FRET (smFRET) efficiency between these two sites in pol II-TFIIF. We found they exhibited a proximity consistent with that observed in the transcription pre-initiation complex by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). We further compared our non-covalent labeling approach with an enzyme-enabled covalent labeling method. The virtually indistinguishable results validate our smFRET approach and show that the observed proximity between the two sites represents a hallmark of the pol II-TFIIF complex. Taken together, we present a simple and versatile bio-orthogonal method derived from TAP to enable selective labeling of a protein complex. This method is suitable for analyzing dynamic relationships among proteins involved in transcription and it can be readily extended to many other biological processes.

Directional thermal emission and display using pixelated non-imaging micro-optics.

Thermal radiation is intrinsically broadband, incoherent and non-directional. The ability to beam thermal energy preferentially in one direction is not only of fundamental importance, but it will enable high radiative efficiency critical for many thermal sensing, imaging, and energy devices. Over the years, different photonic materials and structures have been designed utilizing resonant and propagating modes to generate directional thermal emission. However, such thermal emission is narrowband and polarised, leading to limited thermal transfer efficiency. Here we experimentally demonstrate ultrabroadband polarisation-independent directional control of thermal radiation with a pixelated directional micro-emitter. Our compact pixelated directional micro-emitter facilitates tunable angular control of thermal radiation through non-imaging optical principles, producing a large emissivity contrast at different view angles. Using this platform, we further create a pixelated infrared display, where information is only observable at certain directions. Our pixelated non-imaging micro-optics approach can enable efficient radiative cooling, infrared spectroscopy, thermophotovoltaics, and thermal camouflaging.

Design and development of a sensorized hammerstone for accurate force measurement in stone knapping experiments.

The process of making stone tools, specifically knapping, is a hominin behaviour that typically involves using the upper limb to manipulate a stone hammer and apply concentrated percussive force to another stone, causing fracture and detachment of stone chips with sharp edges. To understand the emergence and subsequent evolution of tool-related behaviours in hominins, the connections between the mechanics of stone knapping, including the delivery of percussive forces, and biomechanics and hominin anatomy, especially in the upper limb, are required. However, there is an absence of direct experimental means to measure the actual forces generated and applied to produce flakes during knapping. Our study introduces a novel solution to this problem in the form of an ergonomic hand-held synthetic hammerstone that can record the percussive forces that occur during knapping experiments. This hammerstone is composed of a deformable pneumatic 3D-printed chamber encased within a 3D-printed grip and a stone-milled striker. During knapping, hammer impact causes the pneumatic chamber to deform, which leads to a change in pressure that is measured by a sensor. Comparisons of recorded pressure data against corresponding force values measured using a force plate show that the synthetic hammer quantifies percussion forces with relatively high accuracy. The performance of this hammerstone was further validated by conducting anvil-supported knapping experiments on glass that resulted in a root mean square error of under 6%, while recording forces up to 730 N with successful flake detachments. These validation results indicate that accuracy was not sensitive to variations up to 15° from the vertical in the hammer striking angle. Our approach allows future studies to directly examine the role of percussive force during the stone knapping process and its relationship with both anatomical and technological changes during human evolution.

On the industrial attributions of the Aterian and Mousterian of the Maghreb.

North Africa is quickly emerging as one of the more important regions yielding information on the origins of modern Homo sapiens. Associated with significant fossil hominin remains are two stone tool industries, the Aterian and Mousterian, which have been differentiated, respectively, primarily on the basis of the presence and absence of tanged, or stemmed, stone tools. Largely because of historical reasons, these two industries have been attributed to the western Eurasian Middle Paleolithic rather than the African Middle Stone Age. In this paper, drawing on our recent excavation of Contrebandiers Cave and other published data, we show that, aside from the presence or absence of tanged pieces, there are no other distinctions between these two industries in terms of either lithic attributes or chronology. Together, these results demonstrate that these two 'industries' are instead variants of the same entity. Moreover, several additional characteristics of these assemblages, such as distinctive stone implements and the manufacture and use of bone tools and possible shell ornaments, suggest a closer affinity to other Late Pleistocene African Middle Stone Age industries rather than to the Middle Paleolithic of western Eurasia.

Case Report: Neonatal Urinary Ascites Without Hydronephrosis: A Rare Case of Anterior Urethral Valve and Diverticulum in Preterm Newborn.

The deformation of congenital obstruction of the anterior urethra is rare in male infants. The anterior urethral valve (AUV) and diverticulum are not common causes of distal urethral obstruction, which may be significant but difficult to diagnose in time. We describe a premature infant who was diagnosed with AUV as part of a diverticulum in the anterior urethra and was presented as massive urinary ascites without hydroureters and hydronephrosis. After indwelling abdominal tube and urinary catheterization, the infant's massive ascites were resolved, while urethral obstruction had successful treatment by Holmium laser. We suggest that the presence of urinary ascites in fetuses and neonates should be considered as a warning against urinary malformations.

The mediating effect of platform width on the size and shape of stone flakes.

To understand the ways in which past stone knappers controlled the morphology of the flakes they produced, archaeologists have focused on examining the effects of striking platform attributes on flake size and shape. Among the variables commonly considered, platform width has routinely been noted to correlate with flake size and hence used to explain past knapping behaviors. Yet, the influence of platform width on flake variation remains equivocal due to the fact that the attribute is not under the direct control of the knapper. Instead, platform width tends to be treated as a by-product of other independent knapping parameters, such as platform depth. In this study, we hypothesize that platform width acts as an intermediary that intervenes the effect of other independent variables on flake attributes. By analyzing experimental flakes produced under both controlled and replicative settings, the results support the hypothesis that platform width mediates the effect of platform depth on flake width, such that flakes with relatively larger platform widths are generally wider but no longer. This finding provides a way to incorporate platform width into discussions of the interrelationships among knapping variables, and highlights the importance of platform width for investigating how past knappers controlled flake production through platform manipulation.

After the blades: The late MIS3 flake-based technology at Shuidonggou Locality 2, North China.

Contrasting with the predominance of blade-based assemblages in the Eurasian Upper Paleolithic, the large-scale persistence of a core-and-flake technology remains one of the defining features of Late Pleistocene lithic technology in East Asia. In North China, Shuidonggou is an exceptional site where both technologies are documented, therefore, it is an important archaeological sequence to understand regional technological evolution during the Marine Isotopic Stage 3. Blade technology first occurred at Shuidonggou Locality 1 and 2 around 41 ka cal BP while core-and-flake assemblages were widespread in North China. However, systematic technological studies on assemblages postdating 34 ka cal BP have not been conducted to examine whether the blade technology appeared and disappeared over a short yet abrupt episode, or persists and integrates into other forms in the region. Here, we conducted qualitative and quantitative analyses to reconstruct lithic productions on the assemblages at Shuidonggou Locality 2, dated after 34 ka cal BP. Our results show that there is a total absence of laminar elements in stone artifacts dated to 34-28 ka cal BP at Shuidonggou. Instead, we observe a dominance of an expedient production of flakes in the younger assemblages, illustrating a rapid return to flake-based technology after a relatively brief episode of stone blade production. Combining archaeological, environmental, and genetic evidence, we suggest that this technological 'reversal' from blades back to core and flake technology reflect population dynamics and adaptive strategies at an ecological interface between East Asian winter and summer monsoon.

Characterization of lung ultrasound imaging in preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia.

BACKGROUND: Lung ultrasound (LUS) is a bedside technique that can be used on diagnosis and follow-up of neonatal respiratory diseases. However, there are rare reports on the ultrasound features of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) which is one of the most common chronic lung diseases in preterm infants. OBJECTIVE: To describe the ultrasound features of different BPD levels, and to investigate the value of ultrasound in evaluating moderate-to-severe BPD. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, newborns of less than 37 weeks' gestational age in neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) were included. The LUS characteristics including pleural line, alveolar-interstitial syndrome (AIS), retrodiaphragmatic hyperechogenicity and diaphragmatic morphology were observed and recorded. The reliability of LUS in evaluating moderate and severe BPD were compared and calculated. RESULTS: A total of 108 infants were enrolled in our study: 39, 24, 29, 16 infants had non, mild, moderate and severe BPD. The median(IQR) pleura thickness in the moderate-to-severe BPD group was 1.7(1.6-1.85) mm, which was thicker than that in the none-to-mild BPD infants (P < 0.001), meanwhile the proportions of rough pleural lines, diffuse AIS, retrodiaphragmatic hyperechogenicity, small cysts above the diaphragm and rough diaphragm in the moderate-to-severe BPD group were also higher than those in none-to-mild BPD group (86.7% vs 36.5, 57.8% vs 7.9%, 37.8% vs 0, 33.3% vs 0, P < 0.001). In evaluating moderate-to-severe BPD, rough pleura had 91.1% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.793-0.965) in sensitivity, 91.3% (95% CI: 0.797-0.966) in negative predictive value (NPV), and 66.7% (95% CI: 0.544-0.771) in specificity. Small cysts had 100% (95% CI: 0.941-1) in specificity, 100% (95% CI: 0.816-1) in positive predictive value (PPV), and 37.8% in sensitivity (95% CI: 0.251-0.524). Rough diaphragm had 100% (95% CI: 0.943-1) in sensitivity, 100% (95% CI: 0.796-1) in PPV and 33.3% (95% CI: 0.211-0.478) in specificity. CONCLUSIONS: Depending on its unique advantages such as convenient, no radiation and repeatable, LUS is a valuable imaging method in assessing the severity of BPD, especially in moderate and severe BPD.

PEX26 gene genotype-phenotype correlation in neonates with Zellweger syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Zellweger syndrome (ZS) is commonly manifested as facial deformities, hypotonia, and liver dysfunction. However, ZS caused by PEX26 gene mutation shows a broad and dispersed clinical pattern. In this study, the PEX26 gene in ZS was analyzed to enrich its clinical characteristics. Meanwhile, phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of Zellweger spectrum disorder (ZSD) induced by PEX26 mutation were evaluated. METHODS: The clinical data of newborn with ZS in our hospital were analyzed retrospectively. We performed WES and found that the infant carried the PEX26 gene variant. We searched the biomedical literature databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE) to compare clinical features and genotypes. RESULTS: The neonate developed facial deformities, hypotonia, feeding difficulties, and seizures. Her homozygous variant was found in the PEX26 gene (NM_017929: exon2: c.34del) inherited from both parents. Electronic databases, including our case, reported 32 pathogenic variants in PEX26. We found that variation c.292C> T accounted for the largest proportion of PEX26 mutations (16/66, 24.24%). The proportion of deleterious mutations in ZS patients was significantly higher than that in NALD and IRD patients. CONCLUSIONS: We identified pathogenic variations in the PEX26 gene and expanded the known mutant spectrum. By comparing patients with PEX26 mutations, the study determined that a significantly higher percentage of deleterious mutations in ZS was associated with severe clinical phenotypic characteristics.

Echocardiography evaluation of bronchopulmonary dysplasia-associated pulmonary hypertension: a retrospective observational cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Echocardiography has poor accuracy in grading the severity of pulmonary hypertension (PH) compared to cardiac catheterization. However, the relationship between degree of PH and prognostic outcomes remains uncertain. Our primary objective was to determine whether echocardiogram-assessed PH severity is associated with mortality and hospital readmission in the first year of life. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of infants born less than 32 weeks of gestational age with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) underwent echocardiography was performed. Echocardiograms were performed at 36-38 weeks postmenstrual age. Data during hospitalization and post-discharge collected at 1-year age were analyzed with cox regression models and logistic regression models to identify the association of PH severity with mortality and readmission. Area under curve (AUC) was calculated to examine the accuracy of these models to reflect the likelihood of outcomes. RESULTS: Fifty-six of 237 (23.6%) infants were diagnosed as PH. Moderate and severe PH was significantly associated with mortality during the first one year of life (moderate PH vs. none HR =26.58, 95% CI: 4.40-160.78, P<0.001; severe PH vs. none HR =36.49, 95% CI: 5.65-235.84, P<0.001). Male, preeclampsia and inhaled nitric oxide were also associated with mortality. Mild PH was significantly associated with readmission (OR =2.42, 95% CI: 1.12-5.26, P=0.025), but not associated with mortality (HR =2.09, 95% CI: 0.43-10.18, P=0.36). The PH severity model based on echocardiography accurately informed mortality (AUC 0.79). CONCLUSIONS: Echocardiogram-assessed PH severity is associated with prognostic outcomes, including mortality and readmission in very preterm infants with BPD. The severity of PH based on echocardiography is a potential predictor of mortality in the first year of life.

Stochastic models support rapid peopling of Late Pleistocene Sahul.

The peopling of Sahul (the combined continent of Australia and New Guinea) represents the earliest continental migration and settlement event of solely anatomically modern humans, but its patterns and ecological drivers remain largely conceptual in the current literature. We present an advanced stochastic-ecological model to test the relative support for scenarios describing where and when the first humans entered Sahul, and their most probable routes of early settlement. The model supports a dominant entry via the northwest Sahul Shelf first, potentially followed by a second entry through New Guinea, with initial entry most consistent with 50,000 or 75,000 years ago based on comparison with bias-corrected archaeological map layers. The model's emergent properties predict that peopling of the entire continent occurred rapidly across all ecological environments within 156-208 human generations (4368-5599 years) and at a plausible rate of 0.71-0.92 km year-1. More broadly, our methods and approaches can readily inform other global migration debates, with results supporting an exit of anatomically modern humans from Africa 63,000-90,000 years ago, and the peopling of Eurasia in as little as 12,000-15,000 years via inland routes.

A chronological model for the Late Paleolithic at Shuidonggou Locality 2, North China.

The site of Shuidonggou Locality 2 offers important evidence for the Late Paleolithic sequence of north China. The site not only contains one of the earliest instances of ornamental freshwater shell and ostrich eggshell beads in the region, but also stone artifacts with features arguably resembling the Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) blade technology found farther north. The appearance of these innovative archaeological forms have been attributed to the arrival of hominin populations, possibly modern humans, into the region during Marine Isotope Stage 3. Yet, the chronology of the site remains debated due to ambiguities in the existing dates. In this study, we conduct a systematical radiocarbon analysis of charcoal and ostrich eggshell samples obtained throughout the site sequence. Both acid-base-acid and the more stringent acid-base-oxidation pretreatment methods were applied to the charcoal samples. The resulting ages follow an age-depth relationship that is consistent with the stratigraphic profile. In line with previous stratigraphic assessments, Bayesian age modeling suggests that site formation history can be split into two phases: an early phase 43-35 cal kBP associated with a lacustrine depositional environment, and a later phase 35-28 cal kBP associated with rapid terrestrial silt accumulation. The chronology of the archaeological layers containing IUP-like artifacts are placed at 43-39 cal kBP and 35-34 cal kBP respectively. This finding supports the interpretation that an IUP-like blade technology appeared in the SDG region by at least ~41 ka.

Introducing platform surface interior angle (PSIA) and its role in flake formation, size and shape.

Four ways archaeologists have tried to gain insights into how flintknapping creates lithic variability are fracture mechanics, controlled experimentation, replication and attribute studies of lithic assemblages. Fracture mechanics has the advantage of drawing more directly on first principles derived from physics and material sciences, but its relevance to controlled experimentation, replication and lithic studies more generally has been limited. Controlled experiments have the advantage of being able to isolate and quantify the contribution of individual variables to knapping outcomes, and the results of these experiments have provided models of flake formation that when applied to the archaeological record of flintknapping have provided insights into past behavior. Here we develop a linkage between fracture mechanics and the results of previous controlled experiments to increase their combined explanatory and predictive power. We do this by documenting the influence of Herztian cone formation, a constant in fracture mechanics, on flake platforms. We find that the platform width is a function of the Hertzian cone constant angle and the geometry of the platform edge. This finding strengthens the foundation of one of the more influential models emerging from the controlled experiments. With additional work, this should make it possible to merge more of the experimental results into a more comprehensive model of flake formation.

Author Correction: Two million years of flaking stone and the evolutionary efficiency of stone tool technology.

In the version of this Article originally published, the authors mistakenly included duplicate entries in the flake datasets for the new Pech de l'Azé IV and Warwasi collections, resulting in minor errors in the statistical analysis. The authors have now repeated this analysis with the correct flake datasets. As a result, in the following two sentences, the number of flakes has been changed from 19,000 to 18,000: "Using more than 18,000 flakes from 81 assemblages spanning two million years..." and "We applied a comparative approach...on more that 18,000 complete and unmodified flakes." In addition, in Figs. 1-3 and Supplementary Fig. 1, some of the data points for the Pech de l'Azé IV and Warwasi collections have moved; the original and corrected figures are below. Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 have been updated to reflect the corrected statistics, and datasets 'Flake_data' and 'Summary_data' have been replaced with the corrected data files. Furthermore, the data availability statement has been updated with the text "Open access to these data and the R code generated for this study is provided at https://zenodo.org/record/1408081#.W6iyn84zaHs ". The authors would like to thank L. Premo at Washington State University for finding the duplicate entries in the published flake dataset.