Longitudinal associations between sex, diabetes self-care, and health-related quality of life among youth with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the longitudinal associations between sex, diabetes self-care, and the health-related quality of life (HRQL) of children and adolescents with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. STUDY DESIGN: The sample included 910 participants with type 1 and 241 participants with type 2, ages 10-22 years at baseline, from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study, a longitudinal observational study. The primary outcome measure was the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory. Repeated measures, mixed-model regression analysis was conducted with the use of data from baseline and at least one follow-up assessment, spanning approximately 4 years. RESULTS: HRQL was greater among those with type 1 versus type 2 diabetes. Among participants with type 1, greater (better) Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory total scores over time were related to greater parent education (P = .0007), lower glycated hemoglobin values (P < .0001), and greater physical activity during the past 7 days (P = .0001). There was a significant interaction between sex and age (P < .0001); girls' HRQL remained stable or decreased over time, whereas males' HRQL increased. For participants with type 2 diabetes, there was no significant interaction by age and sex, but lower total HRQL was related to being female (P = .011) and greater body mass index z-scores (P = .014). CONCLUSIONS: HRQL in this cohort varied by diabetes type. The interaction between sex and age for type 1 participants, coupled with poorer HRQL among female than male participants with type 2 diabetes, suggests the impacts of diabetes on HRQL differ by sex and should be considered in clinical management. Encouraging physical activity and weight control continue to be important in improving HRQL.

Prevalence and Predictors of Household Food Insecurity and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Use in Youth and Young Adults With Diabetes: The SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of household food insecurity (HFI) and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) participation among youth and young adults (YYA) with diabetes overall and by type, and sociodemographic characteristics. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: The study included participants with youth-onset type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study. HFI was assessed using the 18-item U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM) administered from 2016 to 2019; three or more affirmations on the HFSSM were considered indicative of HFI. Participants were asked about SNAP participation. We used χ2 tests to assess whether the prevalence of HFI and SNAP participation differed by diabetes type. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine differences in HFI by participant characteristics. RESULTS: Of 2,561 respondents (age range, 10-35 years; 79.6% ≤25 years), 2,177 had type 1 diabetes (mean age, 21.0 years; 71.8% non-Hispanic White, 11.8% non-Hispanic Black, 13.3% Hispanic, and 3.1% other) and 384 had type 2 diabetes (mean age, 24.7 years; 18.8% non-Hispanic White, 45.8% non-Hispanic Black, 23.7% Hispanic, and 18.7% other). The overall prevalence of HFI was 19.7% (95% CI 18.1, 21.2). HFI was more prevalent in type 2 diabetes than type 1 diabetes (30.7% vs. 17.7%; P < 0.01). In multivariable regression models, YYA receiving Medicaid or Medicare or without insurance, whose parents had lower levels of education, and with lower household income had greater odds of experiencing HFI. SNAP participation was 14.1% (95% CI 12.7, 15.5), with greater participation among those with type 2 diabetes compared with those with type 1 diabetes (34.8% vs. 10.7%; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Almost one in three YYA with type 2 diabetes and more than one in six with type 1 diabetes reported HFI in the past year-a significantly higher prevalence than in the general U.S. population.

Prevalence of tobacco use and association between cardiometabolic risk factors and cigarette smoking in youth with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVES: To examine prevalence of tobacco use and coexistence of cardiometabolic risk factors according to smoking status in youth with diabetes mellitus. STUDY DESIGN: Youth aged 10 to 22 years who participated in the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study (n = 3466) were surveyed about their tobacco use and examined for cardiometabolic risk factors: waist circumference, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, physical activity, and lipid profile. RESULTS: The prevalence of tobacco use in youth aged 10 to 14 years, 15 to 19 years, and ≥20 years with type 1 diabetes mellitus was 2.7%, 17.1%, and 34.0%, respectively, and the prevalence in youth with type 2 diabetes mellitus was 5.5%, 16.4%, and 40.3%, respectively. Smoking was more likely in youth with annual family incomes <$50 000, regardless of diabetes mellitus type. Cigarette smoking was associated with higher odds of high triglyceride levels and physical inactivity in youth with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Less than 50% of youth aged 10 to 14 years (52.2% of participants) reported having ever been counseled by their healthcare provider to not smoke or to stop smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco use is prevalent in youth with diabetes mellitus. Aggressive tobacco prevention and cessation programs should be a high priority to prevent or delay the development of cardiovascular disease.

Incidence of diabetes in youth in the United States.

CONTEXT: Data on the incidence of diabetes mellitus (DM) among US youth according to racial/ethnic background and DM type are limited. OBJECTIVE: To estimate DM incidence in youth aged younger than 20 years according to race/ethnicity and DM type. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A multiethnic, population-based study (The SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study) of 2435 youth with newly diagnosed, nonsecondary DM in 2002 and 2003, ascertained at 10 study locations in the United States, covering a population of more than 10 million person-years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Incidence rates by age group, sex, race/ethnicity, and DM type were calculated per 100,000 person-years at risk. Diabetes mellitus type (type 1/type 2) was based on health care professional assignment and, in a subset, further characterized with glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) autoantibody and fasting C peptide measures. RESULTS: The incidence of DM (per 100,000 person-years) was 24.3 (95% confidence interval [CI], 23.3-25.3). Among children younger than 10 years, most had type 1 DM, regardless of race/ethnicity. The highest rates of type 1 DM were observed in non-Hispanic white youth (18.6, 28.1, and 32.9 for age groups 0-4, 5-9, and 10-14 years, respectively). Even among older youth (> or =10 years), type 1 DM was frequent among non-Hispanic white, Hispanic, and African American adolescents. Overall, type 2 DM was still relatively infrequent, but the highest rates (17.0 to 49.4 per 100,000 person-years) were documented among 15- to 19-year-old minority groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our data document the incidence rates of type 1 DM among youth of all racial/ethnic groups, with the highest rates in non-Hispanic white youth. Overall, type 2 DM is still relatively infrequent; however, the highest rates were observed among adolescent minority populations.

Caregiver reports of provider recommended frequency of blood glucose monitoring and actual testing frequency for youth with type 1 diabetes.

AIMS: To identify demographic, family and clinical characteristics associated with provider recommended frequency of blood glucose monitoring (BGM), actual frequency of BGM, and concordance between these categories in youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D) as reported by child's caregiver. METHODS: Caregivers of 390 children 10-17 years were interviewed about their children's providers' recommendations for frequency of BGM and their child's frequency of performance of BGM. RESULTS: The majority (92%) of caregivers reported being told that their child should BGM ≥4 times per day and 78% reported their child checked that frequently. Caregivers of children who were younger, non-Hispanic White, from two-parent households, higher income households, and on insulin pumps were more likely to report being told by their provider to perform BGM ≥6 times per day and more likely to report that their child performed BGM ≥6 times per day. Younger children and those with private health insurance were more likely to adhere to reported recommendations. Children whose caregivers reported that their child met/exceeded their provider recommendations had lower A1c values than those who did not. CONCLUSIONS: These findings may help clinicians identify subgroups of youth at-risk for poor diabetes management and provide further education in order to improve outcomes.

Complementary and alternative medicine use and quality of life in pediatric diabetes.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to explore the association between complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use as reported by youth, and parents' and children's reported quality of life in youth with diabetes. DESIGN: The study design was a cross-sectional survey. SETTING: Youth in Washington State participated in the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study, a national, multisite epidemiological study designed to assess the prevalence and incidence of diabetes in U.S. youth. Surveys assessing CAM utilization were mailed in January and April 2006. PARTICIPANTS: One thousand four hundred and thirty-nine (1439) youth were mailed a CAM survey. The final sample consisted of 467 youth with both CAM survey results and quality-of-life data. OUTCOME MEASURES: Difference in mean scores on Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL) between CAM users and nonusers overall, and specific CAM therapies were the outcome measures. RESULTS: Of the 1439 participants approached, 587 (40.8%) returned the CAM survey. In adjusted analyses, children reported any CAM use as associated with more barriers to treatment (difference in mean scores -3.48, 95% confidence interval [CI] -6.65, -0.31). Children following a CAM diet reported higher quality of life (PedsQL Core Total difference 4.01, 95% CI [0.10-7.91]; Core Psychosocial difference was 6.45, 95% CI [1.95 to 10.95]), but those using stress-reduction activities reported poorer quality of life (Diabetes Total difference -4.19, 95% CI [-8.35 to -0.04]). Parent-reported quality of life was lower for children who used "other supplements" (Core Total difference -6.26, 95% CI [-11.29 to -1.24]; Core Psychosocial difference was -5.92, 95% CI [-11.65 to -0.19]). CONCLUSIONS: CAM diets were associated with increased quality of life in youth with diabetes, whereas supplement use and stress-reduction activities were associated with decreased quality of life. The temporal sequence between CAM use and quality of life requires further study.

Association between maternal diabetes in utero and age at offspring's diagnosis of type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine age of diabetes diagnosis in youth who have a parent with diabetes by diabetes type and whether the parent's diabetes was diagnosed before or after the youth's birth. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: The cohort comprised SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study participants (diabetes diagnosis 2001-2005) with a diabetic parent. SEARCH is a multicenter survey of youth with diabetes diagnosed before age 20 years. RESULTS: Youth with type 2 diabetes were more likely to have a parent with either type 1 or type 2 diabetes (mother 39.3%; father 21.2%) than youth with type 1 diabetes (5.3 and 6.7%, respectively, P < 0.001 for each). Type 2 diabetes was diagnosed 1.68 years earlier among those exposed to diabetes in utero (n = 174) than among those whose mothers' diabetes was diagnosed later (P = 0.018, controlled for maternal diagnosis age, paternal diabetes, sex, and race/ethnicity). Age at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes for 269 youth with and without in utero exposure did not differ significantly (difference 0.96 year, P = 0.403 after adjustment). Controlled for the father's age of diagnosis, father's diabetes before the child's birth was not associated with age at diagnosis (P = 0.078 for type 1 diabetes; P = 0.140 for type 2 diabetes). CONCLUSIONS: Type 2 diabetes was diagnosed at younger ages among those exposed to hyperglycemia in utero. Among youth with type 1 diabetes, the effect of the intrauterine exposure was not significant when controlled for mother's age of diagnosis. This study helps explain why other studies have found higher age-specific rates of type 2 diabetes among offspring of women with diabetes.

Health-related quality of life of children and adolescents with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus: SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the associations between demographic and diabetes management variables and the health-related quality of life (HRQOL) of youths with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTINGS: Selected populations in Ohio, Washington, South Carolina, Colorado, Hawaii, and California; health service beneficiaries in 3 American Indian populations; and participants in the Pima Indian Study in Arizona. PARTICIPANTS: Two thousand four hundred forty-five participants aged 8 to 22 years in the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory scores. RESULTS: Among youths with type 2 DM, HRQOL was lower compared with those with type 1. Among those with type 1 DM, worse HRQOL was associated with a primary insurance source of Medicaid or another government-funded insurance, use of insulin injections vs an insulin pump, a hemoglobin A(1c) value of at least 9%, and more comorbidities and diabetes complications. There was a significant age x sex interaction, such that, in older groups, HRQOL was lower for girls but higher for boys. For youths with type 2 DM, injecting insulin at least 3 times a day compared with using an oral or no diabetes medication was associated with better HRQOL, and having 2 or more emergency department visits in the past 6 months was associated with worse HRQOL. CONCLUSIONS: Youths with types 1 and 2 DM reported HRQOL differences by type of treatment and complications. The significant age x sex interaction suggests that interventions to improve HRQOL should consider gender differences in diabetes adjustment and management in different age groups.

Prevalence and correlates of depressed mood among youth with diabetes: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine if depressed mood among youth with diabetes was associated with type and duration of diabetes, mean glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level, and the frequency of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hypoglycemic episodes, hospitalizations, and emergency department (ED) visits. METHODS: A total of 2672 youth (aged 10-21 years) who had diabetes for a mean duration of 5 years completed a SEARCH study visit, in which their HbA1c was measured and information about their demographic characteristics, diabetes type and duration, and episodes of DKA, hypoglycemia, hospitalizations, and ED visits over the previous 6 months was collected. Their level of depressed mood was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). RESULTS: Among these youth, 14% had mildly (CES-D 16-23) and 8.6% had moderately or severely (CES-D > or =24) depressed mood. Females had a higher mean CES-D score than males. After adjusting for demographic factors, and duration of diabetes, we found the prevalence of depressed mood to be higher among males with type 2 diabetes than those with type 1 diabetes and to be higher among females with comorbidities than those without comorbidities. Higher mean HbA1c and frequency of ED visits were associated with depressed mood. The prevalence of depressed mood among youth with diabetes was similar to that of published estimates of depressed mood among youth without diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Physicians and other health care professionals should consider screening youth with diabetes for depressed mood in clinical settings, particularly youth with poor glycemic control, those with a history of frequent ED visits, males with type 2 diabetes, and females with comorbidities.

The burden of diabetes mellitus among US youth: prevalence estimates from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study.

OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to estimate the prevalence of diabetes mellitus in youth <20 years of age in 2001 in the United States, according to age, gender, race/ethnicity, and diabetes type. METHODS: The SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study is a 6-center observational study conducting population-based ascertainment of physician-diagnosed diabetes in youth. Census-based denominators for 4 geographically based centers and enrollment data for 2 health plan-based centers were used to calculate prevalence. Age-, gender-, and racial/ethnic group-specific prevalence rates were multiplied by US population counts to estimate the total number of US youth with diabetes. RESULTS: We identified 6379 US youth with diabetes in 2001, in a population of approximately 3.5 million. Crude prevalence was estimated as 1.82 cases per 1000 youth, being much lower for youth 0 to 9 years of age (0.79 cases per 1000 youth) than for those 10 to 19 years of age (2.80 cases per 1000 youth). Non-Hispanic white youth had the highest prevalence (1.06 cases per 1000 youth) in the younger group. Among 10- to 19-year-old youth, black youth (3.22 cases per 1000 youth) and non-Hispanic white youth (3.18 cases per 1000 youth) had the highest rates, followed by American Indian youth (2.28 cases per 1000 youth), Hispanic youth (2.18 cases per 1000 youth), and Asian/Pacific Islander youth (1.34 cases per 1000 youth). Among younger children, type 1 diabetes accounted for > or = 80% of diabetes; among older youth, the proportion of type 2 diabetes ranged from 6% (0.19 cases per 1000 youth for non-Hispanic white youth) to 76% (1.74 cases per 1000 youth for American Indian youth). We estimated that 154,369 youth had physician-diagnosed diabetes in 2001 in the United States. CONCLUSIONS: The overall prevalence estimate for diabetes in children and adolescents was approximately 0.18%. Type 2 diabetes was found in all racial/ethnic groups but generally was less common than type 1, except in American Indian youth.