A minireview of recent developments in ozone detection using optical chemodosimeters.

The development of optical chemodosimeters for ozone detection has been an important research subject in recent years because of the environmental and biological relevance of ozone. The design and development of ozone chemodosimeters, as well as their numerous applications from 2009 to 2022, have all been thoroughly covered in this minireview. In this review, chemodosimeters are categorised according to their distinctive reaction mechanism with ozone. The comparative data for each of these chemodosimeters have also been provided here. We have also discussed the difficulties and potential prospects of this fast-evolving discipline. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review that has comprehensively analysed the progress made in the development of ozone chemodosimeters.

Near-infrared fluorescent turn-on probe for hydrazine detection: environmental samples and live cell imaging.

An acetoxy naphthaldehyde conjugated benzophenoxazinium chloride chromophore-based-donor-π-acceptor (D-π-A) fluorescent probe BPN (benzophenoxazinium naphthoxy imine) displaying near-infrared (NIR) emission was reported for hydrazine detection. The chosen water-soluble benzophenoxazinium chloride chromophore has excellent photostability, a high molar extinction coefficient and fluorescence quantum yield (Φ = from 0.0075 to 0.6193), higher selectivity towards hydrazine and a longer fluorescence lifetime. In the presence of hydrazine, BPN exhibits near infrared fluorescence emission at 725 nm along with color change from light blue to red, as detected by the naked eye. Moreover, the BPN probe can selectively detect hydrazine (DL = 4.5 × 10-10 M) in a 90% aqueous DMSO solution without interfering with other analytes. As proof of real samples, the probe is successfully applied to sense hydrazine in thin layer chromatography (TLC) paper strips (both solution and vapor phases) and water and soil samples, suggesting its significant potential application. Also, due to its NIR emission and aqueous solubility, the BPN probe can be successfully used in live cell imaging with low cytotoxicity.

A benzothiazole-based dual reaction site fluorescent probe for the selective detection of hydrazine in water and live cells.

As hydrazine is an environmental pollutant and highly toxic to living organisms, selective and rapid detection is highly needed for the benefit of living organisms as well as the environment. Here, we first introduced a novel benzothiazole conjugated methyldicyanovinyl coumarin probe BTC, with dual recognition sites for hydrazine detection. The incorporation of the methyldicyanovinyl group into the benzocoumarin fluorophore increased the electrophilicity of the lactone ring of the probe BTC facilitating the nucleophilic attack of hydrazine and rapid (within 1 min, low detection limit = 1.7 nM) turn-on sky blue fluorescence with 700-fold fluorescence intensity enhancement was observed via hydrazine-induced lactone ring-opening followed by selective cleavage of the dicyanovinyl group. According to the literature, dicyanovinyl group assisted lactone ring opening has revealed the possibility of hydrazine recognition with a large Stokes shift (140 nm) and a high fluorescence quantum yield (0.67). Here, the DFT study and practical applications of the probe BTC in different water samples have been presented. The probe BTC was also successfully applied for the detection of hydrazine in the vapor phase using paper strips and in live MDA-MB 231 cells.

Terpyridine derivatives as "turn-on" fluorescence chemosensors for the selective and sensitive detection of Zn2+ ions in solution and in live cells.

A terpyridine based compound L1 was designed and synthesized as an "off-on" chemosensor for the detection of Zn2+. Chemosensor L1 showed excellent selectivity and sensitivity toward Zn2+ by exhibiting a large fluorescence enhancement (∼51-fold) at 370 nm whereas other competitive metal ions did not show any noticeable change in the emission spectra of chemosensor L1. The chemosensor (L1) was shown to detect Zn2+ ions down to 9.76 µM at pH 7.4. However, chemosensor L1 binds Zn2+ in a 1 : 2 ratio (receptor : metal) with an association constant of 1.85 × 104 (R2 = 0.993) and this 1 : 2 stoichiometric fashion is established on the basis of a Job plot and mass spectroscopy. DFT/TD-DFT calculations were carried out to understand the binding nature, coordination features and electronic properties of L1 and the L1-2Zn2+ complex. In addition, this "turn-on" fluorescence probe was effectively used to image intracellular Zn2+ ions in cultured MDA-MB-468 cells.

An azodye-rhodamine-based fluorescent and colorimetric probe specific for the detection of Pd(2+) in aqueous ethanolic solution: synthesis, XRD characterization, computational studies and imaging in live cells.

Azodye-rhodamine hybrid colorimetric fluorescent probe (L) has been designed and synthesized. The structure of L has been established based on single crystal XRD. It has been shown to act as a selective turn-on fluorescent chemosensor for Pd(2+) with >40 fold enhancement by exhibiting red emission among the other 27 cations studied in aqueous ethanol. The coordination features of the species of recognition have been computationally evaluated by DFT methods and found to have a distorted tetrahedral Pd(2+) center in the binding core. The probe (L) has been shown to detect Pd up to 0.45 µM at pH 7.4. Furthermore, the probe can be used to image Pd(2+) in living cells.

Highly sensitive and selective rhodamine-based "off-on" reversible chemosensor for tin (Sn4+) and imaging in living cells.

A structurally characterized new oxo-chromene functionalized rhodamine derivative L1 exhibits high selectivity toward Sn(4+) by forming a 1:1 complex, among other biologically important metal ions, as studied by fluorescence, absorption, and HRMS spectroscopy. Complexing with Sn(4+) triggers the formation of a highly fluorescent ring-open form which is pink in color. The sensor shows extremely high fluorescence enhancement upon complexation with Sn(4+), and it can be used as a "naked-eye" sensor. DFT computational studies carried out in mimicking the formation of a 1:1 complex between L1 and Sn(4+) resulted in a nearly planar pentacoordinate Sn(IV) complex. Studies reveal that the in situ prepared L1-Sn complex is selectively and fully reversible in presence of sulfide anions. Further, confocal microscopic studies confirmed that the receptor shows in vitro detection of Sn(4+) ions in RAW cells.

Recent Advancements in Colorimetric and Fluorescent pH Chemosensors: From Design Principles to Applications.

Due to the immense biological significance of pH in diverse living systems, the design, synthesis, and development of pH chemosensors for pH monitoring has been a very active research field in recent times. In this review, we summarize the designing strategies, sensing mechanisms, biological and environmental applications of fluorogenic and chromogenic pH chemosensors of the last three years (2018-2020). We categorized these pH probes into seven types based on their applications, including 1) Cancer cell discriminating pH probes; 2) Lysosome targetable pH probes; 3) Mitochondria targetable pH probes; 4) Golgi body targetable pH probes; 5) Endoplasmic reticulum targetable pH probes; 6) pH probes used in nonspecific cell imaging; and 7) pH probes without cell imaging. All these different categories exhibit diverse applications of pH probes in biological and environmental fields.

Triphenylamine-based small-molecule fluorescent probes.

Ammonia with the three hydrogens substituted by phenyls is known as triphenylamine (TPA), and is one of the most useful compounds because of its vast practical applications. Chemists have produced thousands of TPA derivatives to date. Because of its biocompatibility and structural features, it has been widely used in the fields of molecular recognition, molecular imaging, materials chemistry, and also in biology and medical science. Its strong electron-donating ability encourages scientists to produce different types of probes for molecular recognition. This review is based on recent developments and advances in TPA-based small molecular fluorescent probes within the time period 2010-2021. This extensive review may expedite improvements in more advanced fluorescent probes for vast and stimulating applications in the future.

Spiropyran-Merocyanine Based Photochromic Fluorescent Probes: Design, Synthesis, and Applications.

Due to ever-increasing insights into their fundamental properties and photochromic behaviors, spiropyran derivatives are still a target of interest for researchers. The interswitching ability of this photochrome between the spiropyran (SP) and merocyanine (MC) isoforms under external stimuli (light, cations, anions, pH etc.) with different spectral properties as well as the protonation-deprotonation of its MC form allows researchers to use it suitably in sensing purposes by developing different colorimetric and fluorometric probes. Selective and sensitive recognition can be achieved by little modification of its SP moiety and functional groups. In this review, we emphasize the recent advancements (from 2019 to 2022) of spiropyran-merocyanine based fluorogenic and chromogenic probes for selective detection of various metal ions, anions, neutral analytes, and pH. We precisely explain their design strategies, sensing mechanisms, and biological and environmental applications. This review may accelerate the improvements in designing more advanced probes with innovative applications in the near future.

Recent advances in selective formaldehyde detection in biological and environmental samples by fluorometric and colorimetric chemodosimeters.

Formaldehyde, a highly reactive carbonyl species, has been widely used in day-to-day life owing to its numerous applications in essential commodities, etc.; the extrusion of formaldehyde from these sources basically leads to increased formaldehyde levels in the environment. Additionally, formaldehyde is endogenously produced in the human body via several biological processes. Considering the adverse effects of formaldehyde, it is highly important to develop an efficient and reliable method for monitoring formaldehyde in environmental and biological samples. Several chemodosimeters (reaction-based sensing probes) have been designed and synthesized to selectively detect the presence of formaldehyde utilizing the photophysical properties of molecules. In this review, we have comprehensively discussed the recent advances in the design principles and sensing mechanisms of developed probes and their biological/environmental applications in selective formaldehyde detection and imaging endogenous formaldehyde in cells. We have summarized the literature based on three different categories: (i) the Schiff base reaction, (ii) the 2-aza-Cope sigmatropic rearrangement reaction and (iii) miscellaneous approaches. In all cases, reactions are accompanied by changes in color and/or emission that can be detected by the naked eye.

Recent development of chromogenic and fluorogenic chemosensors for the detection of arsenic species: Environmental and biological applications.

Due to biological and environmental significance of highly toxic arsenic species, the design, synthesis and development of chemosensors for arsenic species has been a very active research field in recent times. In this review, we summarize recent works on the sensing mechanisms employed by fluorometric/colorimetric chemosensors and their applications in arsenic detection. Various types of sensing strategies can be categorized into six types including (i) chemosensors based on hydrogen bonding interactions; (ii) aggregation induced emission (AIE) based chemosensors; (iii) chemodosimetric approach (reaction-based chemosensors); (iv) metal coordination-based sensing strategy; (v) chemosensors based on metal complex displacement approach and (vi) metal complex as chemosensor. All these sensing strategies are very much simple and sensitive for use in the design of arsenic selective chromogenic and fluorogenic probes.

Rhodamine-Appended Benzophenone Probe for Trace Quantity Detection of Pd2+ in Living Cells.

Designing a fluorogenic probe for the determination of Pd2+ is a challenging analytical task. Pd2+ is a potentially toxic and harmful substance even at a very low level of contamination in the end product. Herein, a promising spirolactam-functionalized chemosensor, rhodamine-appended benzophenone (HBR), is designed and characterized by spectroscopic (1H NMR, 13C NMR, ESI-MS, and FT-IR) data along with the single-crystal X-ray diffraction technique. It acts as a highly sensitive and selective fluorogenic chemosensor for Pd2+ ions over other environmentally relevant cations in aqueous ethanol (1:1, v/v) at pH 7.4. The limit of detection (LOD) is 34 nM that is far below the WHO recommended Pd uptake (47 µM). The plausible mechanism involves the specific binding of HBR with Pd2+ and the formation of 1:1 stoichiometry of the complex, which has been supported by ESI-MS, FT-IR data, Job plot, and association constant data (Benesi-Hildebrand plot). The computation study has been attempted to explain the ring cleavage fluorescence enhancement scheme of HBR upon binding with Pd2+. Furthermore, this "turn-on" probe has successfully applied to image the Pd2+ ion in cultured MDA-MB-231 cells.

A cyclization-induced emission enhancement (CIEE)-based ratiometric fluorogenic and chromogenic probe for the facile detection of a nerve agent simulant DCP.

The first ratiometric fluorescent probe for the detection of a nerve agent simulant was developed based on tandem phosphorylation and intramolecular cyclization, by which high sensitivity as well as large emission shift could be achieved.

A new selective chromogenic and turn-on fluorogenic probe for copper(II) in solution and vero cells: recognition of sulphide by [CuL].

A new coumarin-appended thioimidazole-linked imine conjugate, viz. has been synthesized and characterized. has been found to recognize Cu(2+) selectively among a wide range of biologically relevant metal ions. The chemosensing behavior of has been demonstrated through fluorescence, absorption, visual fluorescence color changes, ESI-MS and (1)H NMR titrations. The chemosensor showed selectivity toward Cu(2+) by switch on fluorescence among the 18 metal ions studied with a detection limit of 1.53 µM. The complex formed between and Cu(2+) is found to be 1 : 1 on the basis of absorption and fluorescence titrations and was confirmed by ESI-MS. DFT and TDDFT calculations were performed in order to demonstrate the structure of and [CuL] and the electronic properties of chemosensor and its copper complex. This highly fluorescent [CuL] complex has been used to recognize sulphide selectively among the other allied anions. Microstructural features of and its Cu(2+) complex have been investigated by SEM imaging (scanning electron microscopy). The biological applications of were evaluated in Vero cells and it was found to exhibit low cytotoxicity and good membrane permeability for the detection of Cu(2+).

Unique fluorogenic ratiometric fluorescent chemodosimeter for rapid sensing of CN(-) in water.

A new benzimidazole-spiropyran conjugate chemosensor molecule (BISP) has been synthesized and characterized by (1)H NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and elemental analysis. The two isomeric forms (BISP↔BIMC) were shown to be highly selective and sensitive to CN(-) among the ten anions studied in aqueous HEPES buffer, as shown by fluorescence and absorption spectroscopy and even by visual color changes, with a detection limit of 1.7 µM for BIMC. The reaction of CN(-) with BIMC was monitored by (1)H NMR spectroscopy, high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), UV/Vis measurements, and fluorescence spectroscopy in HEPES buffer of pH 7.4. TDDFT calculations were performed in order to correlate the electronic properties of the chemosensor with its cyanide complex. Further, titration against thiophilic metal ions like Au(3+), Cu(2+), Ag(+), and Hg(2+) with [BIMC-CN] in situ showed that it acts as a secondary recognition ensemble toward Au(3+) and Cu(2+) by switch-on fluorescence. In addition, a reversible logic-gate property of BIMC has been demonstrated through a feedback loop in the presence of CN(-) and Au(3+) ions, respectively. Furthermore, the use of BIMC to detect CN(-) in live cells by fluorescence imaging has also been demonstrated. Notably, test strips based on BIMC were fabricated, which could serve as convenient and efficient CN(-) test kits.

Color response of tri-armed azo host colorimetric sensors and test kit for fluoride.

Five new chromogenic tripodal receptors (2a-e) containing electron withdrawing and donating groups appended to the azophenol moiety were synthesized, characterized, and their chromogenic behaviors toward various anions were investigated. These tripodal receptors showed a distinct color change only when treated with fluoride ions in CH(3)CN solution. Yet, other anions such as Cl(-), Br(-), I(-), NO(3)(-), ClO(4)(-), AcO(-), HSO(4)(-), and H(2)PO(4)(-) could not cause any color change. Thus, the receptors 2a-e can be used as a colorimetric chemosensor for the determination of fluoride ion. In addition, (1)H NMR experiments were carried out to explore the nature of interaction between tripodal receptors and fluoride. Finally, analytical application and the use of test strip of the receptor 2b to detect fluoride was also reported.