Emotional and functional well-being in long-term breast cancer survivorship.

PURPOSE: Emotional and functional well-being (EWB and FWB) are important components of mental health and quality of life. This study aims to evaluate long-term EWB and FWB in breast cancer (BC) survivors. METHODS: The Carolina Breast Cancer Study Phase 3 oversampled Black and younger (< 50 years in age) women so that they each represent approximately 50% of the study population and assessed participants' EWB and FWB with the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Breast (FACT-B) at 5- (baseline), 25-, and 84-months post diagnosis. Multinomial logit models were used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for associations between demographic and clinical characteristics and well-being change relative to baseline. RESULTS: Among 2,781 participants with BC, average EWB and FWB improved with time since diagnosis. Persistent FWB decrements were associated with Black race [OR 1.4 (95% CI 1.2-1.7) and 1.3 (95% CI 1.1-1.6), at 25-months and 84-months respectively], older age [OR 1.4 (95% CI 1.1-1.7) and 1.5 (95% CI 1.2-1.8), respectively], no chemotherapy, and recurrence [OR 2.9 (95% CI 1.8-4.8) and 3.1 (95% CI 2.1-4.6), respectively]. EWB decrements were associated with advanced stage and recurrence. Decrements in combined (FWB+EWB) well-being were associated with recurrence at both follow-up survey timepoints [ORs 4.7 (95% CI 2.7-8.0) and 4.3 (95% CI 2.8-6.6), respectively]. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term well-being varies by demographics and clinical features, with Black women and women with aggressive disease at greatest risk of long-term decrements.

Non-linear associations between HPA axis activity during infancy and mental health difficulties during early childhood among children in rural Pakistan.

Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis activity may be a mechanism linking early adversity to child mental health difficulties. However, there is a dearth of longitudinal evidence for the association between HPA axis activity and mental health among children in low-resource contexts. The goal of this study is to examine linear and curvilinear associations between HPA axis activity during infancy and mental health difficulties in early childhood among children in rural Pakistan. Participants included 104 children (46% male) from the Bachpan study, a longitudinal cohort embedded within a maternal depression trial in Pakistan. We examined the associations between hair-derived cortisol and dehydroepiandosterone (DHEA) at 12 months old and mental health difficulties, measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), at 36 months old. There was a significant quadratic association between hair cortisol and SDQ scores, with results showing a U-shaped relationship (i.e., having relatively high or low cortisol predicted increased mental health difficulties). DHEA showed a quadratic association with SDQ scores with an inverted U-shaped relationship (i.e., high and low DHEA was associated with decreased mental health difficulties). Results provide evidence of longitudinal and curvilinear effects of cortisol and DHEA during infancy on mental health difficulties in early childhood.

Understanding the effects of universal test and treat on longitudinal HIV care outcomes among South African youth: a retrospective cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Little is known about the effects of universal test and treat (UTT) policies on HIV care outcomes among youth living with HIV (YLHIV). Moreover, there is a paucity of information regarding when YLHIV are most susceptible to disengagement from care under the newest treatment guidelines. The longitudinal HIV care continuum is an underutilized tool that can provide a holistic understanding of population-level HIV care trajectories and be used to compare treatment outcomes across groups. We aimed to explore effects of the UTT policy on longitudinal outcomes among South African YLHIV and identify temporally precise opportunities for re-engaging this priority population in the UTT era. METHODS: Using medical record data, we conducted a retrospective cohort study among youth aged 18-24 diagnosed with HIV from August 2015-December 2018 in nine health care facilities in South Africa. We used Fine and Gray sub-distribution proportional hazards models to characterize longitudinal care continuum outcomes in the population overall and stratified by treatment era of diagnosis. We estimated the proportion of individuals in each stage of the continuum over time and the restricted mean time spent in each stage in the first year following diagnosis. Sub-group estimates were compared using differences. RESULTS: A total of 420 YLHIV were included. By day 365 following diagnosis, just 23% of individuals had no 90-or-more-day lapse in care and were virally suppressed. Those diagnosed in the UTT era spent less time as ART-naïve (mean difference=-19.3 days; 95% CI: -27.7, -10.9) and more time virally suppressed (mean difference = 17.7; 95% CI: 1.0, 34.4) compared to those diagnosed pre-UTT. Most individuals who were diagnosed in the UTT era and experienced a 90-or-more-day lapse in care disengaged between diagnosis and linkage to care or ART initiation and viral suppression. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of UTT yielded modest improvements in time spent on ART and virally suppressed among South African YLHIV- however, meeting UNAIDS' 95-95-95 targets remains a challenge. Retention in care and re-engagement interventions that can be implemented between diagnosis and linkage to care and between ART initiation and viral suppression (e.g., longitudinal counseling) may be particularly important to improving care outcomes among South African YLHIV in the UTT era.

Generativity and Engagement in Grandparenting Activities Among Older Adults in Northern Sri Lanka.

Generativity refers to the desire to pass on one's skills, knowledge, and wisdom to future generations; this may be a clear indicator of the likelihood of older adults investing time and effort in engagement with their grandchildren. This cross-sectional study examines the relationship between generative beliefs and an index of multiple potential grandparenting activities. The data come from a convenience sample of 79 grandparents (aged 55+) living in Sri Lanka, a society experiencing rapid growth in its population of older adults. Regression analyses demonstrate that more endorsement of generative beliefs among older adults is associated with increased engagement in various grandparenting activities, with the strongest associations with reading, singing songs, and helping grandchildren with schoolwork or teaching them. Our findings suggest that generativity may be important for understanding the relationship between grandparenting and improved well-being for older adults.

Grandparenting activities and mental health in Northern Sri Lanka.

Grandparenting activities are of increasing interest to researchers seeking to understand reduced social engagement and depression among aging adults. Heterogeneity in the population and caretaking roles complicate its measurement. We piloted a measure of grandparenting activities among 79 grandparents (aged 55+) in Sri Lanka and correlated those activity levels with psychological distress. Second, we explored whether the aforementioned correlation varied by grandparent functional limitations. We found that greater engagement in generative grandparenting activities was correlated with lower distress, and that association was stronger among grandparents with more functional limitations. We discuss possible explanations and implications of these findings.

Stressful life events, intimate partner violence, and perceived stress in the postpartum period: longitudinal findings in rural Pakistan.

PURPOSE: While the association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and stress is well documented, the directionality of this relationship is unclear. We use an adjusted longitudinal study design to better understand if stressful life events in the home precipitate or exacerbate intimate partner violence (IPV) and if experiences of IPV, in turn, increase levels of perceived stress. METHODS: Longitudinal data were collected among married women in rural Pakistan at 12 and 24 months postpartum (N = 815). Adjusted Poisson and linear regression models were used to examine stressful life events, past year IPV and severity (number and frequency of violent acts), and perceived stress (Cohen Perceived Stress Scale). RESULTS: At 12 months postpartum, the prevalence of past year physical, psychological, and sexual IPV was 8.5%, 25.7%, and 25.1%, respectively, with 42.6% experiencing any IPV. After adjustment, stressful life events were associated with a subsequent increased likelihood of all IPV types and increased severity of all but physical IPV. Any past year IPV (versus none) and greater IPV severity were associated with 3.43 (95% CI 2.33-4.52) and 2.57 (95% CI 1.87-3.27) point subsequent increases in perceived stress. Physical, psychological, and sexual IPV and their respective severities were all independently associated with increased perceived stress. CONCLUSIONS: Among postpartum women in Pakistan, stressful life events increase the likelihood of IPV and, in turn, experiences of IPV increase stress levels. Support to families undergoing stressful circumstances may be critical to reducing women's IPV exposure and resulting elevated stress.

The Impact of Maternal Depression and Parent-Child Interactions on Risk of Parasitic Infections in Early Childhood: A Prospective Cohort in Benin.

OBJECTIVES: Maternal depression occurs in 13-20% of women from low-income countries, which is associated with negative child health outcomes, including diarrheal disease. However, few studies have investigated its impact on child risk of infectious disease. We studied the impacts of maternal depressive symptoms and parent-child interactions, independently, on the risk of Plasmodium falciparum malaria and soil-transmitted helminth infection in Beninese children. METHODS: Our population included mothers and children enrolled in a clinical trial during pregnancy (MiPPAD) in Benin. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) assessed maternal depressive symptoms and the home observation measurement of the environment (HOME) assessed parent-child interactions. Blood and stool sample analyses diagnosed child malaria and helminth infection at 12, 18, and 24 months. Negative binomial and Poisson regression models with robust variance tested associations. RESULTS: Of the 302 mother-child pairs, 39 (12.9%) mothers had depressive symptoms. Median number of malaria episodes per child was 3 (0-14) and 29.1% children had at least one helminth infection. Higher EPDS scores were associated with lower HOME scores; relative risk (RR) 0.97 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.95, 0.99), particularly with lower acceptance, involvement, and variety subscales; RR 0.92 (95% CI 0.85, 0.99), RR 0.82 (95% CI 0.77, 0.88), RR 0.93 (95% CI 0.88, 0.99), respectively. However, neither exposure was associated with risk of parasitic infection in children. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: Maternal depressive symptoms are associated with poor parent-child interactions, particularly acceptance of behavior, involvement with children, and variety of interactions, but these exposures do not independently impact risk of parasitic infection in children.

The relationship of cumulative psychosocial adversity with antepartum depression and anxiety.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to multiple psychosocial risk factors may increase vulnerability for mental health conditions during pregnancy. This analysis examined the relationship of a novel psychosocial adversity index with the co-occurrence and persistence of depression and anxiety throughout pregnancy. METHODS: This cross-sectional analysis included 1797 pregnant women screened in the second/third trimesters for depression and anxiety symptoms and for eight contextual and individual psychosocial factors. The factors were summed to create a psychosocial adversity index; reporting four or more factors indicated high adversity. Elevated symptoms in both trimesters indicated persistent depression/anxiety and elevated symptoms at the same trimester indicated comorbid symptoms. The associations between the psychosocial adversity index and mental health were estimated. RESULTS: Compared with a low psychosocial adversity index, women reporting a high level of psychosocial adversities had 2.06 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.51-2.82) times higher adjusted odds of only depressive or anxiety symptoms, and 5.57 (95% CI: 3.95-7.85) times higher adjusted odds of comorbid symptoms. The associations for persistent symptoms were of similar direction and magnitude. CONCLUSION: High psychosocial adversity was associated with persistent and comorbid depressive symptoms and anxiety during pregnancy. Assessing psychosocial adversity can help identify women at increased risk who would benefit from tailored mental health interventions.

Differences in Access to HIV Services and Risky Sexual Behaviors Among Malawian Women at Social Venues Who Do and Do Not Engage in Sex Work.

In the high HIV-burden country of Malawi, female sex workers (FSW) are one of the populations most profoundly affected by HIV. The Malawi Priorities for Local AIDS Control Efforts (PLACE) surveyed 1,004 self-identified FSW, 213 other FSW (OFSW), and 130 other high risk women (OHRW) at social venues. Analyses compared the three groups using survey-weighted log binomial regression models. Each group had a distinct pattern of usage and access to services: OFSW and FSW had greater access to condoms, while using a condom ever was greatest among FSW. Nearly all women knew where to get tested for HIV but very few used FSW drop-in centers. HIV prevalence was high in all three groups (35% FSW, 20% OFSW, 20% OHRW). Given these results, HIV services should be targeted to all women at social venues in Malawi, regardless of sex worker status to improve health outcomes and limit onward transmission of HIV.

Association Between Depression and HIV Care Engagement Outcomes Among Patients Newly Initiating ART in Lilongwe, Malawi.

As in other sub-Saharan countries, the burden of depression is high among people living with HIV in Malawi. However, the association between depression at ART initiation and two critical outcomes-retention in HIV care and viral suppression-is not well understood. Prior to the launch of an integrated depression treatment program, adult patients were screened for depression at ART initiation at two clinics in Lilongwe, Malawi. We compared retention in HIV care and viral suppression at 6 months between patients with and without depression at ART initiation using tabular comparison and regression models. The prevalence of depression among this population of adults newly initiating ART was 27%. Those with depression had similar HIV care outcomes at 6 months to those without depression. Retention metrics were generally poor for those with and without depression. However, among those completing viral load testing, nearly all achieved viral suppression. Depression at ART initiation was not associated with either retention or viral suppression. Further investigation of the relationship between depression and HIV is needed to understand the ways depression impacts the different aspects of HIV care engagement.

Socio-economic and racial/ethnic disparities in the nutritional quality of packaged food purchases in the USA, 2008-2018.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether disparities exist in the nutritional quality of packaged foods and beverage purchases by household income, education and race/ethnicity and if they changed over time. DESIGN: We used Nielsen Homescan, a nationally representative household panel, from 2008 to 2018 (n = 672 821 household-year observations). Multivariate, multilevel regressions were used to model the association between sociodemographic groups and a set of nutritional outcomes of public health interest, including nutrients of concern (sugar, saturated fat and Na) and calories from specific food groups (fruits, non-starchy vegetables, processed meats, sugar-sweetened beverages and junk foods). SETTING: Household panel survey. PARTICIPANTS: Approximately 60 000 households each year from the USA. RESULTS: Disparities were found by income and education for most outcomes and widened for purchases of fruits, vegetables and the percentage of calories from sugar between 2008 and 2018. The magnitude of disparities was largest by education. Disparities between Black and White households include the consumption of processed meats and the percentage of calories from sugar, while no disparities were found between White and Hispanic households. Disparities have been largely persistent, as any significant changes over time have been substantively small. CONCLUSIONS: Policies to improve the healthfulness of packaged foods must be expanded beyond SSB taxes, and future research should focus on what mediates the relationship between education and diet so as not to exacerbate disparities.

Adverse childhood experiences and depression among women in rural Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are a common pathway to adult depression. This pathway is particularly important during the perinatal period when women are at an elevated risk for depression. However, this relationship has not been explored in South Asia. This study estimates the association between ACEs and women's (N = 889) depression at 36 months postpartum in rural Pakistan. METHOD: Data come from the Bachpan Cohort study. To capture ACEs, an adapted version of the ACE-International Questionnaire was used. Women's depression was measured using both major depressive episodes (MDE) and depressive symptom severity. To assess the relationship between ACEs and depression, log-Poisson models were used for MDE and linear regression models for symptom severity. RESULTS: The majority (58%) of women experienced at least one ACE domain, most commonly home violence (38.3%), followed by neglect (20.1%). Women experiencing four or more ACEs had the most pronounced elevation of symptom severity (ß = 3.90; 95% CL = 2.13, 5.67) and MDE (PR = 2.43; 95% CL = 1.37, 4.32). Symptom severity (ß = 2.88; 95% CL = 1.46, 4.31), and MDE (PR = 2.01; 95% CL = 1.27, 3.18) were greater for those experiencing community violence or family distress (ß = 2.04; 95%; CL = 0.83, 3.25) (PR = 1.77; 95% CL = 1.12, 2.79). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that ACEs are substantively distinct and have unique relationships to depression. They signal a need to address women's ACEs as part of perinatal mental health interventions and highlight women's lifelong experiences as important factors to understanding current mental health. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02111915 . Registered 11 April 2014. NCT02658994 . Registered 22 January 2016. Both trials were prospectively registered.

Maternal depression in rural Pakistan: the protective associations with cultural postpartum practices.

BACKGROUND: Traditional postpartum practices are intended to provide care to mothers, but there is mixed evidence concerning their impact on postpartum depression (PPD). It remains unknown if there is a unique impact of postpartum practices on PPD separately from other types of social support, or if practices differentially affect those with existing prenatal depression. In Pakistan, chilla (چله) is a traditional postpartum practice in which women receive relief from household work, additional familial support, and supplemental food for up to 40 days postpartum. This study aims to understand if chilla protects against PPD independent of other support and whether this relationship varies by prenatal depression status. METHODS: Data come from the Bachpan cohort study in rural Pakistan. Chilla participation and social support (Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support) were assessed at 3 months postpartum. Women were assessed for major depressive episodes (MDE) with the Structured Clinical Interview, DSM-IV and for depression symptom severity with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) in their third trimester and at 6 months postpartum. Adjusted linear mixed models were used to assess the relationship between chilla participation and PPD. RESULTS: Eighty-nine percent of women (N = 786) participated in chilla and almost 70% of those that participated took part in all of chilla's aspects. In adjusted models, chilla participation was inversely related to MDE (OR = 0.56;95%CI = 0.31,1.03) and symptom severity (Mean Difference (MD) = - 1.54;95%CI: - 2.94,-0.14). Chilla participation was associated with lower odds of MDE (OR = 0.44;95%CI = 0.20,0.97) among those not prenatally depressed and with lower symptom severity among those prenatally depressed (MD = -2.05;95%CI:-3.81,-0.49). CONCLUSIONS: Chilla is inversely associated with both MDE and symptom severity at 6 months postpartum above and beyond social support. Specifically, chilla is inversely associated with MDE among those not prenatally depressed and with lower symptom severity among those prenatally depressed. This relationship signals an opportunity for interventions aimed at preventing and treating PPD in this region to draw upon chilla and similar traditional postpartum practices in creating community-based, low-cost, sustainable interventions for maternal mental health. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02111915. Registered 18 September 2015. NCT02658994. Registered 22 January 2016. Both trials were prospectively registered.

The relationship between responsive caregiving and child outcomes: evidence from direct observations of mother-child dyads in Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Responsive caregiving, or interactions in which caregivers give appropriate responses to a child's signals, is linked to improved psychosocial, cognitive and physical outcomes in children. However, much remains unknown about how responsive caregiving affects child development across cultural and socioeconomic contexts. The purpose of this study is to examine predictors of maternal responsive caregiving and investigate how these interactions are associated with children's development. METHODS: Data for the current analyses came from a longitudinal study designed to follow mothers from the third trimester through the first three years of the child's life. To assess responsive caregiving, the Observation of Mother-Child Interaction (OMCI) measure was used to examine maternal and child behaviors during a 5-min picture book activity at 24 months. Outcomes included child height-for-age z-score and child socioemotional development, using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-Socioemotional (ASQ-SE) in which lower scores demonstrated better development. Using mean comparisons, the effects of baseline sociodemographic factors and maternal depression on responsive caregiving were tested. Analyses utilized hierarchical linear regressions to examine cross-sectional associations between responsive caregiving and child development outcomes at 24 months. Additional analyses controlled for the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME), a common measure in low-income contexts of caregiving, to assess whether OMCI was uniquely predictive of child outcomes. RESULTS: Higher maternal education attainment, lower number of children, greater socioeconomic assets, and lack of maternal depression were associated with higher levels of observed responsive caregiving behaviors. Higher total OMCI scores were associated with positive child socioemotional outcomes in adjusted models (ß: -0.84, 95% CI [- 1.40, - 0.29]). The finding was statistically significant, even after controlling for HOME score (ß: -0.83, 95% CI [- 1.38, - 0.27]). There was no association between OMCI scores and child linear growth. CONCLUSIONS: Responsive caregiving is linked to positive child socioemotional development in rural Pakistan. Our findings suggest that incorporating responsive caregiving into child health interventions in LMIC may have valuable impacts on child socioemotional development. The OMCI may be useful in identifying important pathways for change to responsive caregiving behaviors and may be of service for future interventions that optimize child development through responsive caregiving. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02111915 (09/18/2015); NCT02658994 (01/22/2016). Trials were prospectively registered.

Prevalence and factors associated with antenatal depressive symptoms among women enrolled in Option B+ antenatal HIV care in Malawi: a cross-sectional analysis.

BACKGROUND: Option B+ has increased the number of pregnant women initiating antiretroviral therapy for HIV, yet retention in HIV care is sub-optimal. Retention may be affected by antenatal depression. However, few data exist on antenatal depression in this population. AIM: Describe the prevalence and factors associated with antenatal depression among Malawian women enrolled in Option B+. METHOD: At their first antenatal visit, women with HIV provided demographic and psychosocial information, including depression as measured with the locally validated Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Prevalence ratios (PR) for factors associated with probable depression (EPDS ≥6) were estimated with log binomial regression. RESULTS: 9.5% (95% CI: 7.5-11.9%) of women screened positive for current depression, and 46% self-reported a history of depression or anxiety. Women were more likely to screen positive for current depression if they reported a history of depression (adjusted PR: 2.42; 95% CI: 1.48-3.95) or had ever experienced intimate partner violence (1.77; 1.11-2.81). Having an unintended current pregnancy (1.78; 0.99-3.21), being unmarried (1.66; 0.97-2.84), or employed (1.56; 1.00-2.44) had potential associations with probable depression. CONCLUSIONS: Probable antenatal depression affected a notable proportion of women living with HIV, comparable to other global regions. Screening for antenatal depression in HIV care should be considered.

Educational Mobility Across Generations and Depressive Symptoms Over 10 Years Among US Latinos.

Few studies have collected intergenerational data to assess the association between educational mobility across multiple generations and offspring depression. Using data from the Sacramento Area Latino Study on Aging (1998-2008), we assessed the influence of intergenerational education on depressive symptoms over 10 years among 1,786 Latino individuals (mean age = 70.6 years). Educational mobility was classified as stable-low (low parental/low offspring education), upwardly mobile (low parental/high offspring education), stable-high (high parental/high offspring education), or downwardly mobile (high parental/low offspring education). Depressive symptoms were measured with the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D); higher scores indicated more depressive symptoms. To quantify the association between educational mobility and CES-D scores over follow-up, we used generalized estimating equations to account for repeated CES-D measurements and adjusted for identified confounders. Within individuals, depressive symptoms remained relatively stable over follow-up. Compared with stable-low education, stable-high education and upward mobility were associated with significantly lower CES-D scores (ß = -2.75 and -2.18, respectively). Downwardly mobile participants had slightly lower CES-D scores than stable-low participants (ß = -0.77). Our results suggest that sustained, low educational attainment across generations may have adverse mental health consequences, and improved educational opportunities in underresourced communities may counteract the adverse influence of low parental education on Latino depression.

Child mental health and maternal depression history in Pakistan.

PURPOSE: We address the significant gaps in knowledge of prevalence and correlates of child mental health (CMH) problems outside of high income countries. We describe the prevalence of CMH problems and their correlates with a focus on the association with maternal depression in a sample of seven-year-old children in rural Pakistan. METHODS: This study was nested in a long-term follow-up of a perinatal depression intervention together with a reference group of non-depressed women, yielding a population representative sample. The Total Difficulties (TD) and component scores of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) were used to measure emotional and behavioral difficulties. RESULTS: The mean SDQ TD score was 10.6 (standard deviation = 8.3), with 12.5 % of children categorized as "abnormal" using standard cutoffs. Boys had a roughly 1 point higher (worse) SDQ TD score than girls (p value = 0.04). Children of mothers who were depressed prenatally as well as currently had SDQ TD scores 2.87 points higher than children whose mothers were not depressed at either time point (p value < 0.01). This association was stronger for boys. There was no evidence of elevated SDQ TD score among children whose mothers were depressed only prenatally or only currently. Some deviations from this pattern were observed with specific components of the SDQ. CONCLUSIONS: In this low resource, South Asian setting, we found evidence of elevated levels of emotional and behavioral problems, highlighting the need for effective interventions. Given the strong association of CMH with maternal depression, any intervention efforts should give strong consideration to maternal mental health.

Trajectories of Early Childhood Skill Development and Maternal Mental Health.

We investigate the impacts of a perinatal psychosocial intervention on trajectories of maternal mental health and child skills, from birth to age 3. We find improved maternal mental health and functioning (0.17 to 0.29 SD), modest but imprecisely estimated improvements in parenting (0.07 to 0.11 SD), and transitory improvements in child socioemotional development (0.06 to 0.39 SD). The intervention had negligible influence on physical health and cognition. Estimates of a skill production function reveal the intervention attenuated the negative association between maternal depression and child outcomes, and narrowed outcome gaps between mothers who were and were not depressed in pregnancy.

Childhood parental bonding and depression in adulthood: A study of mothers in rural Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Parent-child relationship quality can have long-term impacts on child mental health into adulthood. The impact of parental behaviors on the future mental health of children has been understudied in South Asia, where parenting approaches differ from the dominant western approaches often represented in the literature. METHODS: Mothers in rural Pakistan (N = 828) reported on their own mothers' parenting behaviors using the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) and were assessed for depression using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders (SCID). The PBI includes scales for warmth (care scale) and over-control (protection scale), as well as subscales for behavioral control and psychological control. We used structural equation modeling to test the associations between depression and all PBI scales/subscales. RESULTS: Increased parental care was associated with lower probability of depression (B = -0.19, SE = 0.09). Parental protection was associated with higher probability of depression (B = 0.25, SE = 0.11). Among the protection subscales, behavioral control was associated with increased risk of depression (B = 0.24, 95 % SE = 0.11) and psychological control was associated with decreased risk of depression (B = -0.28, SE = 0.12). LIMITATIONS: This cross-sectional study used retrospective self-reports of parenting experiences. Participants only reported on their mothers, not fathers or other caregivers. CONCLUSIONS: In a rural Pakistani sample, maternal warmth was protective against adulthood depression. The association between maternal control and depression varied based on the type of control (behavioral or psychological), emphasizing the importance of nuanced measures of parental control in this context.

Longitudinal pathways between maternal depression, parenting behaviors, and early childhood development: a mediation analysis.

Maternal depression is a global public health concern with far-reaching impacts on child development, yet our understanding of mechanisms remains incomplete. This study examined whether parenting mediates the association between maternal depression and child outcomes. Participants included 841 rural Pakistani mother-child dyads (50% female). Maternal depression was measured at 12 months postpartum, parenting behaviors (warmth, stimulation, and harsh parenting) were measured at 24 months, and child outcomes (mental health, socioemotional development, and cognitive skills) were measured at 36 months. Maternal depression predicted increased harsh parenting, child mental health difficulties, and child socioemotional concerns; however, there was little evidence for parenting as a mediator between maternal depression and child outcomes. Sex-stratified results are discussed, and findings are situated in context.