Epidemiology of hepatitis A in Greece in the last decade: management of reported cases and outbreaks and lessons learned.

Hepatitis A is a mandatory notifiable disease in Greece. Here, we present the epidemiological data for 2009-2018 and the results of outbreak investigations performed, and discuss future public health priorities.Overall, 1193 cases were reported; 320 migrants/refugees, 240 Roma, 112 travellers and 521 from the general population. The median age of the affected general population (37 years) had an increasing trend (from 30.8 years in 2009 to 40.5 in 2018, P < 0.001) and was significantly higher than that among Roma and migrants (7 and 8 years, respectively, P < 0.001). Twenty-two cases (2.2%) were unvaccinated patients with a chronic liver disease. Fifty clusters with 2-12 cases each were recorded; 44 were attributed to person-to-person transmission and six to food consumption. Three outbreaks accounting for 32.3% of the total number of recorded cases were identified; in 2013 among Roma (112 cases), in 2016 among refugees (188 cases) and in 2017 among men having sex with men (96 cases; 33 of them (34.4%) HIV-positive). The epidemiological data depict that improving living conditions and vaccination coverage of deprived populations, and informing adults on the disease focusing at faecal-oral transmission during sexual intercourse and travel should be the future public health priorities.

'Evidence for waterborne origin of an extended mixed gastroenteritis outbreak in a town in Northern Greece, 2019'.

We investigated a large gastroenteritis outbreak that occurred in Northern Greece in 2019. A case was defined as anyone presenting with diarrhoea and/or vomiting from 24 January 2019 to 04 February 2019. We conducted a case-control study (CCS) using random selection of participants >16 years of age, residents of town X, who visited the health care centre between 25 and 28 January 2019. Moreover, we conducted a retrospective cohort study (CS) at the four elementary schools of the town. We collected clinical and water samples and the water supply system was inspected. In total, we recorded 638 cases (53% female; median age was 44 years (range 0-93)). Forty-eight cases and 52 controls participated in the CCS and 236 students in the CS. Both CCS and CS indicated tap water as the most likely source (OR 10, 95% CI 2.09-93.4, explaining 95.7% of cases; RR = 2.22, 95% CI 1.42-3.46, respectively). More than one pathogen was detected from stool samples of 6 of the 11 cases tested (norovirus, Campylobacter jejuni, Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) and Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC)). Water samples, collected after ad-hoc chlorination, tested negative. Technical failures of the water tanks' status were identified. Our results suggested a waterborne outbreak. We recommended regular monitoring of the water supply system and immediate repair of technical failures.

Norovirus waterborne outbreak in Chalkidiki, Greece, 2015: detection of GI.P2_GI.2 and GII.P16_GII.13 unusual strains.

Noroviruses, along with rotaviruses, are among the leading causes of gastroenteritis worldwide and novel strains are periodically emerging. In August 2015, an unusual increase of gastroenteritis cases occurred in a touristic district in Kassandra peninsula, Chalkidiki, Northern Greece. Seven stool specimens from cases were tested positive for norovirus. Molecular investigation and phylogenetic analysis identified that there was co-circulation of norovirus GI.P2_GI.2 and the recombinant strain GII.P16_GII.13. A 1:1 case-control study conducted and showed that tap water consumption significantly associated with developing symptoms of gastroenteritis (odds ratio = 36.9, P = 0.018). The results of the epidemiological investigation, the co-circulation of two different norovirus strains, the information of a pipeline breakage at the water supply system before the onset of cases, and reports on flooded wells and sewage overflow, indicated the possibility of water contamination by sewage during the pipeline breakage leading to a large outbreak with a peak at 10 August and a possible secondary person-to-person transmission after the 16th of August. Norovirus GI.P2_GI.2 strains are rarely reported in Europe, while it is the first time that infection from the recombinant strain GII.P16_GII.13 is recorded in Greece.

Laboratory capacity of Greek hospitals for diagnosis of salmonellosis and surveillance systems' performance in the years of economic crisis, 2010-2016.

Austerity might have affected the capacity of public hospitals in Greece to diagnose salmonellosis (laboratory capacity) over the period 2010-2016, as well as the performance of the existing surveillance systems. The scope of this paper is to present data on laboratory capacity over these years, as well as the results of a two-source capture-recapture study (data from Mandatory Notification System and National Reference Laboratory System for Salmonella). The main findings were that: (a) laboratory capacity was high and steady besides the financial crisis, (b) the estimated number of laboratory-confirmed cases (n = 6017, 95% CI 5892-6142) resulted in an incidence rate (7.9 cases/100 000 population) almost twice than that reported by the two systems Mandatory Notification System (MNS); 4.1 and National Reference Laboratory System (NRLS); 4.5 cases/100 000 population, (c) underreporting was high for both systems (MNS; 47.5% and NRLS; 42.8%) and (d) differences by geographical region, size and type of hospital were identified. We suggest that (a) specific interventions are needed to increase completeness of the systems by type of hospital and geographical region, (b) record linkage can help in estimating the disease burden in a more valid way than each system separately and (c) a common electronic database in order to feed one system to the other could significantly increase completeness of both systems.

A severe gastroenteritis outbreak of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis PT8, with PFGE profile XbaI.0024 and MLVA profile 2-9-7-3-2 following a christening reception, Greece, 2016.

In June 2016, a Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis outbreak (n = 56) occurred after a christening reception in Central Greece, mainly affecting previously healthy adults; one related death caused media attention. Patients suffered from profuse diarrhoea, fever and frequent vomiting episodes requiring prolonged hospitalisation and sick leave from work, with a 54% hospital admission rate. The majority of cases experienced serious illness within <12 h of attending the party. We investigated the outbreak to identify the source(s) of infection and contributing factors to the disease severity. From the retrospective cohort study, the cheesy penne pasta was the most likely vehicle of infection (relative risk 7·8; 95% confidence interval 3·6-16·8), explaining 79% of the cases. S. enterica ser. Enteritidis isolates were typed as phage-type PT8, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis type XbaI.0024, multiple locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis-type 2-9-7-3-2. The strain did not share the single-nucleotide polymorphism address of the concurrent European S. enterica ser. Enteritidis PT8 outbreak clusters. Following five consecutive years with no documented S. enterica ser. Enteritidis outbreaks in Greece, this outbreak, likely associated with a virulent strain, prompted actions towards the enhancement of the national Salmonella molecular surveillance and control programmes including the intensification of training of food handlers for preventing similar outbreaks in the future. Advanced molecular techniques were useful in distinguishing unrelated outbreak strains.

Resistant Shigella strains in refugees, August-October 2015, Greece.

Shigellosis is endemic in most developing countries and thus a known risk in refugees and internally displaced persons. In 2015, a massive influx of refugees into Greece, due to the political crisis in the Middle East, led to the development of appropriate conditions for outbreaks of communicable diseases as shigellosis. We present a cluster of 16 shigellosis cases in refugees, detected by the implementation of a syndromic notification system in one transit centre in Athens, between 20 August and 7 October 2015. Both Shigella flexneri (n = 8) and S. sonnei (n = 8) were identified, distributed in various serotypes. All tested isolates (n = 13) were multidrug resistant; seven were CTX-M-type extended-spectrum ß-lactamase producers. Our results indicate lack of a potential common source, although pulsed-field gel electrophoresis typing results revealed small clusters in isolates of the same serotype indicating possible limited person-to-person transmission without identifying secondary community cases related to the refugees. To prevent the spread of shigellosis, empirical antibiotic treatment as well as environmental hygiene measures were implemented. The detection of multi-drug resistance is important for determining the appropriate empirical antibiotic treatment for the more severe cases, while at the same time real-time typing is useful for epidemiological investigation and control measures.

A large waterborne gastroenteritis outbreak in central Greece, March 2012: challenges for the investigation and management.

In March 2012, there was an unusual increase of gastroenteritis cases in a district with 37,264 inhabitants in central Greece. It was estimated that more than 3600 people developed symptoms. A 1:1 case-control study showed that consumption of tap water was a risk factor for acquiring infection [odds ratio (OR) 2.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.11-4.28]. Descriptive data, low gastroenteritis incidence in adjacent areas with different water supply systems, and water-quality data further supported the hypothesis of a waterborne outbreak. Thirty-eight stool samples were positive for rotavirus. Bacterial indicators of recent faecal contamination were detected in samples from the water source and ice cubes from a local production enterprise. Molecular epidemiology of rotavirus strains, apart from the common strain, G3[P8], identified the unusual G/P combination G2P[8]. Water sanitation measures contributed to the control of the outbreak. This outbreak demonstrated the need for the cooperation of laboratories with different expertise and the importance of early notification of waterborne gastroenteritis outbreaks.

The epidemiology of dog bite injuries in Greece: preliminary results of a surveillance scheme.

Background: Dog bite injuries commonly fall under the radar of the public health surveillance systems. Nevertheless, these incidents may result in emotional distress, disfigurement, functional deficit, or exposure to zoonotic agents and therefore may have a considerable impact on public health. Methods: A pilot surveillance scheme was launched in Greece to assess the epidemiology of dog bite injuries. Physicians in hospital-based emergency room departments and primary health care centers were required to report bite cases via a reporting form. The collected data were analyzed cross-sectionally. Results: From January to June 2023, 1,656 dog bite victims attended the healthcare settings in Greece. The rate was estimated at 15.8 cases per 100,000 population. The frequency of healthcare visits varied significantly among the regions (p <0.0001), ranging from 0.9 to 45.2 per 100,000 inhabitants. The median number (interquartile range in brackets) of visits concerning dog bite victims for the examined period per reporting hospital was nine (2, 21) and per reporting health center three (1, 10), respectively. The ownerless-to-owned dogs ratio was almost equal (1.04). According to the Abbreviated Injury Scale, 67.3 % of the injuries were classified as minor, 27.7 % as moderate, 4.9 % as serious, and 0.1 % as critical. The lower limb was the most frequently affected anatomical site (50.6 %). Head/neck injuries were associated with younger patients (p <0.0001). Macroscopic tissue loss occurred in 11.9 % of the cases, with the majority presenting areas of damaged or missing skin (50.9 %); partially or completely amputated hand digits occurred in nine of these cases (8.5 %). Among dog bite victims, 2.8 % were hospitalized (inpatients), and 1 % were referred to other hospitals. Conclusions: Dog bite surveillance offers important epidemiological information on the respective traumatic impact. HIPPOKRATIA 2023, 27 (2):82-88.

Outbreak investigation of brucellosis in Thassos, Greece, 2008.

In spring 2008, the Hellenic Center for Disease Control and Prevention was notified about human brucellosis cases in Thassos, a Greek island that had been up to that point under a brucellosis eradication programme. Following the verification of the outbreak a 1:1 case­ control study was conducted in the island. The study revealed that consumption of locally produced raw cheese was a risk factor for Brucella melitensis infection (odds ratio (OR): 15.1, 95% confidence interval (CI): 6.56­34.7). Brucella melitensis biotype 3 was identified in two clinical samples. As a result of the outbreak, the island is no longer officially considered as an area with farms free of brucellosis and is currently under a brucellosis control programme. The investigation of this outbreak demonstrated that control and eradication of brucellosis is not only a question of designing a strategy, but rather of ensuring its continuous, strict implementation. Furthermore, it revealed the lack of appropriate education of the public regarding the risks associated with raw, non heat-treated cheese consumption.

Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter jejuni infections in children in a Greek region.

A case-control study was conducted in the urban area of Attica, Greece to investigate risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter jejuni infections in children aged <15 years. Over a 2-year period, 205 cases and 205 controls, matched by age group (<1, 1-4, 5-9, 10-14 years) and gender, were selected from the registries of the paediatric hospitals of this area. In conditional multivariate logistic regression analysis, ethnicity [odds ratio (OR) 5·06, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2·49-10·28], consumption of chicken the week prior to disease onset (OR 1·97, 95% CI 1·10-3·55) and playing in the garden (OR 1·83, 95% CI 1·05-3·19) were independently associated with disease occurrence; consumption of raw vegetables was a 'protective' factor (OR 0·48, 95% CI 0·27-0·85).

A waterborne Campylobacter jejuni outbreak on a Greek island.

A case-control and a case-crossover study were performed to investigate a Campylobacter jejuni outbreak in Crete in 2009. Most cases originated from rural areas, served by a different water-supply system from that of the adjacent town. Thirty-seven cases and 79 controls were interviewed; cases were interviewed for two different time periods for the case-crossover study. Stool cultures, PFGE and MLST subtyping were run in human samples. Univariately, consumption of tap water was associated with C. jejuni infection. Stratified analysis revealed that water-supply system was an effect modifier of this association. In the multivariable analysis, the rural areas' water supplier and drinking tap water were risk factors. No risk factors were revealed in the case-crossover study. No Campylobacter were isolated in the tested water samples. There is strong epidemiological evidence that tap water was the vehicle of the outbreak.

EpiSouth: a network for communicable disease control in the Mediterranean region and the Balkans.

The countries around the Mediterranean Sea share epidemiological characteristics and public health problems. In 2006 the EpiSouth Project was started as a framework for collaboration for communicable diseases surveillance and training in the Mediterranean Basin. As of December 2008, 26 countries from southern Europe, the Balkans, North Africa and the Middle-East are members of EpiSouth and several international organisations and institutions collaborate: the European Commission (EC), the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), the Italian Ministry of Work, Health and Social Policies and the World Health Organization (WHO). The project is coordinated by the Italian national public health institute and three work packages (WPs) Cross-border epidemic intelligence, vaccine preventable diseases and migrants and Cross-border emerging zoonoses are operated by the national institutes of France, Bulgaria and Greece. These WPs constitute technical pillars on which the project develops. Networking and Training are WPs dedicated to capacity building and are run by the Padua Teaching Hospital (Italy) and the Spanish national public health institute. A steering committee guides EpiSouth's activities while all countries collaborate through WP steering teams and focal points. A number of outcomes have been accomplished and documents with results are available from the EpiSouth website which hosts a public website and a restricted area for direct sharing of information among the participants. Five electronic bulletins were published, two trainings for 63 participants performed, national epidemic intelligence systems were evaluated, a preliminary survey on vaccine-preventable diseases and migrants performed, and a list of priorities for emerging zoonoses in the Mediterranean area was selected. Overall the network succeeded in creating cohesion, mutual trust and concrete collaboration on cross-border public health issues in a geographical area that is not addressed as a whole by any other initiative or organisation.

Brucellosis underreporting in Greece: assessment based on aggregated laborato-ry data of culture-confirmed cases from public hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Brucella spp. isolation is one of the mainstays of brucellosis diagnosis. Simultaneously, the true brucellosis disease rate may be underrepresented in notification systems. This study aims at assessing the nosocomial capacity for Brucella spp. isolation and the underreporting rate of brucellosis cases in Greece. METHODS: Data for Brucella spp. culture capacity and the number of isolations were collected annually from public hospitals nationwide, during 2015-2018. The number of unreported cases was estimated after subtracting the National Mandatory Notification System cases from the survey-captured isolations, matched by hospital and year. RESULTS: Feedback was provided by 112 public hospitals (response rate: 97.4 %). Brucella spp. isolation capacity was completely absent in 27.7 % of hospitals; during the four years of the study, 11.3 %, 13.9 %, 20.0 %, and 25.2 % of the hospitals had isolation competence for one, two, three, or four years, respectively. Underreporting assessment was possible in hospitals that declared at least one Brucella spp. isolation (n =35) and unreported cases were identified in 19 (54 %). Α mean underreporting of 28.9 % of total cases was estimated for the whole period of the study ranging annually from 24.1 % to 35.0 %. The number of unreported cases per hospital ranged from one to 12 per year (median: 2, IQR: 5). CONCLUSIONS: Interventions for improving diagnosis and reporting of the disease are recommended. Assessment of brucellosis underreporting by comparing raw numerical data of survey-captured isolations and officially notified cases lacks the case by case specificity, however, keeping required data to a minimum achieves high feedback rate from hospitals and provides a tentative estimation of the notification deficit. HIPPOKRATIA 2019, 23(3): 106-110.

Management and investigation of viral gastroenteritis nosocomial outbreaks: lessons learned from a recent outbreak, Greece, 2012.

BACKGROUND: A nosocomial outbreak in a 740-bed hospital in Athens, Greece, was investigated in January-February 2012. METHODS: Recommendations on infection control measures were given and two case-control studies were conducted among patients (study A) and health care workers (HCWs) (study B). Compliance to control measures was evaluated. RESULTS: The absence of a routine recording system of nosocomial-acquired gastroenteritis cases led to a 10 days delay in outbreak identification. In total, 63 gastroenteritis cases were identified; 30 HCWs and 33 patients. In the multivariable analysis of study A the disease incidence among patients was statistical significantly associated with a prior incident of vomitus in their room (OR=7.96, 95% CI=1.29-49.2). In study B, the incidence was associated with the history of direct contact with a symptomatic patient (OR=3.03, 95%CI 1.01-9.12). Twenty one (75%) of the symptomatic HCWs reported absence from work for a median of 2 days (range: 1-4). Seven (25.0%) continued to work despite being symptomatic. Only, 11.1% of patients were isolated or cohorted after developing symptoms. In-hospital virological testing was not feasible and one specimen sent to a university laboratory was positive for norovirus. CONCLUSIONS: An appropriately designed protocol regarding the detection, the management and the laboratory investigation of nosocomial gastroenteritis outbreaks should be followed in order effective containment to be reassured. Hippokratia 2014; 18 (3): 204-208.

Repeated occurrence of diverse extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in minor serotypes of food-borne Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica.

Screening of Greek nontyphoid salmonellae from 2000 to 2002 yielded three extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing human isolates. Salmonella enterica serotype Brandenburg harbored a multiresistant SHV-5 gene-carrying plasmid. S. enterica serotype Blockley and S. enterica serotype Hadar harbored a TEM-52 gene-carrying plasmid. An S. enterica serotype Virchow strain producing plasmid-mediated CTX-M-32 was isolated twice from poultry end products. All ESBL plasmids were self-transferable and carried by clones currently common in Greece.