Wheelchair skills training improves power mobility and participation in young people with cerebral palsy.

AIM: To explore the effect of a 4-week structured power wheelchair skills training programme (WSTP) intervention on mobility skills and participation in children and young people (CYP) with cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: This was a one-group, repeated-measures study; baseline, intervention, and retention phases, each lasting 4 weeks, were used. Twelve participants (three females, nine males) with a mean age of 15 years 11 months (SD = 3 years 6 months) classified in Gross Motor Function Classification System levels IV and V participated in the study. To be included in the study, individuals had to be aged 6 to 21 years and currently using a power wheelchair. Participants received 12 WSTP training sessions of 45 minutes, 3 times per week. Power mobility skills were assessed using the Wheelchair Skills Test (WST) before baseline, before the intervention, after the intervention, and at the follow-up; mobility-related participation was assessed with the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM). Generalized mixed models with Bonferroni correction were used to assess the differences between the assessment points (p < 0.05). RESULTS: Statistical analysis showed a 10.4% (12.5) increase in WST total scores (p < 0.001) after the intervention compared to before the intervention, and a 1-point (0.9) increase in the COPM performance subdomain (p = 0.002). INTERPRETATION: Power mobility skills and mobility-related participation improved after a 4-week WSTP intervention in CYP with CP. Thus, task-based power mobility skills training based on the WSTP, and in line with individualized needs and capabilities, taking place in a natural environment, should be recommended. Power mobility skills training needs to be structured and individualized; the training interventions must consider the individual, the task, and the environment.

Pharmacological and neurosurgical management of cerebral palsy and dystonia: Clinical practice guideline update.

Dystonia, typically characterized by slow repetitive involuntary movements, stiff abnormal postures, and hypertonia, is common among individuals with cerebral palsy (CP). Dystonia can interfere with activities and have considerable impact on motor function, pain/comfort, and ease of caregiving. Although pharmacological and neurosurgical approaches are used clinically in individuals with CP and dystonia that is causing interference, evidence to support these options is limited. This clinical practice guideline update comprises 10 evidence-based recommendations on the use of pharmacological and neurosurgical interventions for individuals with CP and dystonia causing interference, developed by an international expert panel following the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) approach. The recommendations are intended to help inform clinicians in their use of these management options for individuals with CP and dystonia, and to guide a shared decision-making process in selecting a management approach that is aligned with the individual's and the family's values and preferences.

Long-Term Follow-Up of Pediatric Patients with Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy and Deep Brain Stimulation.

BACKGROUND: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been increasingly used in the management of dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP). Data on long-term effects and the safety profile are rare. OBJECTIVES: We assessed the efficacy and safety of pallidal DBS in pediatric patients with DCP. METHODS: The STIM-CP trial was a prospective, single-arm, multicenter study in which patients from the parental trial agreed to be followed-up for up to 36 months. Assessments included motor and non-motor domains. RESULTS: Of the 16 patients included initially, 14 (mean inclusion age 14 years) were assessed. There was a significant change in the (blinded) ratings of the total Dyskinesia Impairment Scale at 36 months. Twelve serious adverse events (possibly) related to treatment were documented. CONCLUSION: DBS significantly improved dyskinesia, but other outcome parameters did not change significantly. Investigations of larger homogeneous cohorts are needed to further ascertain the impact of DBS and guide treatment decisions in DCP. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

The Dyskinesia Impairment Scale, Second Edition: Development, construct validity, and reliability.

AIM: To create a shortened, more user-friendly Second Edition of the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale (DIS-II) to assess dystonia and choreoathetosis, and evaluate its construct validity and reliability. METHOD: Scale development included an online expert meeting (n = 21) and iterative discussions within the research group (n = 6). A Rasch measurement model analysis on DIS scores from individuals with dyskinetic cerebral palsy or inherited/idiopathic dystonia (n = 123, 74 males, mean age 14 years, SD 5 years) was performed to evaluate the construct validity and reliability of the DIS-II. RESULTS: The DIS-II evaluates dystonia and choreoathetosis in action and rest in 11 body regions, with action items scored from 0 to 3 and rest items 0 to 2. The number of videos to record are reduced from 26 to 14 and the items to score are reduced from 144 to 88. Rating scale functioning, goodness-of-fit evaluation, principal component analysis, and targeting met the predefined quality criteria of the study and construct validity was therefore considered good. Furthermore, person reliability indicated that the DIS-II can separate individuals into eight distinct ability levels. INTERPRETATION: The DIS-II provides valid and reliable measures for dystonia and choreoathetosis, and reduces the administration and scoring time compared with the DIS. The DIS-II logit scores (interval level data) enhance comparison over time and between individuals in clinical practice and research. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Compared with the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale (DIS), the shortened edition (DIS-II) requires half of the number of videos to be scored. The DIS-II has a simplified rating scale, requiring scoring of 88 instead of 144 items. The DIS-II has shown excellent reliability and good construct validity. The interval properties of the DIS-II are superior to the ordinal level outcome measures of the DIS.

Teleintervention for users of augmentative and alternative communication devices: A systematic review.

AIM: To synthesize existing evidence on the effectiveness of speech-language teleinterventions delivered via videoconferencing to users of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices. METHOD: A systematic literature search was conducted in 10 electronic databases, from inception until August 2021. Included were speech-language teleinterventions delivered by researchers and/or clinicians via videoconferencing to users of AAC devices, without restrictions on chronological age and clinical diagnosis. The quality of the studies included in the review was appraised using the Downs and Black checklist and the Single-Case Experimental Design Scale; risk of bias was assessed using the Risk Of Bias In Non-Randomized Studies - of Interventions and the single-case design risk of bias tools. RESULTS: Six teleinterventions including 25 participants with a variety of conditions, such as Down syndrome, autism, Rett syndrome, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis met the inclusion criteria. Five studies used a single-case experimental design and one was a cohort study. Teleinterventions included active consultation (n = 2), functional communication training (n = 2), brain-computer interface (n = 1), and both teleintervention and in-person intervention (n = 1). All teleinterventions reported an increase in participants' independent use of AAC devices during the training sessions compared to baseline, as well as an overall high satisfaction and treatment acceptability. INTERPRETATION: Speech-language teleinterventions for users of AAC devices show great potential for a successful method of service delivery. Future telehealth studies with larger sample sizes and more robust methodology are strongly encouraged to allow the generalization of results across different populations. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Individuals can learn to use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices independently during tele-AAC interventions. Service providers and recipients reported an overall high satisfaction and acceptability for AAC services delivered via teleinterventions. Speech-language teleinterventions may be an effective method of providing AAC intervention services.

Effectiveness of wheeled mobility skill interventions in children and young people with cerebral palsy: A systematic review.

AIM: To systematically review the effectiveness of wheeled mobility interventions in children and young people with cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: A systematic literature search was performed in MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, EBSCO, PEDro, and Web of Science using database-specific concepts such as 'child' and 'wheelchair'. Studies focusing on wheeled mobility skill interventions with participants aged 6 to 21 years with CP were included. RESULTS: Twenty studies with 203 participants were included. The impact of wheeled mobility skill interventions was assessed on mobility skills (n = 18), activity and participation (n = 10), and quality of life (n = 3). No studies reported effects on stress, fatigue, and motivational aspects. Interventions included power wheelchair skill training (n = 12), computer-based training (n = 5), smart wheelchair training (n = 2), and manual wheelchair training (n = 1), showing positive wheeled mobility intervention effects. Study quality based on the Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies scale was 9 out of 16 and 14 out of 24 for non-comparative and comparative studies respectively. Risk of bias was serious-to-critical on the Risk of Bias in Non-Randomized Studies of Interventions. INTERPRETATION: Wheeled mobility interventions showed promising beneficial effects on wheeled mobility, activity and participation, and quality of life for children and young people with CP. Future studies with structured and standardized training programmes and assessment tools are warranted to further accelerate the wheeled mobility skill acquisition process in this population. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Wheeled mobility interventions improve wheeled mobility skills in individuals with cerebral palsy. The mobility skill acquisition process benefits from structured and standardized training. Knowledge of the intervention effects on participation and quality of life is limited. Most studies had moderate quality of evidence because of methodological limitations.

Reliability and Discriminative Validity of Wearable Sensors for the Quantification of Upper Limb Movement Disorders in Individuals with Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy.

Background-Movement patterns in dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP) are characterized by abnormal postures and involuntary movements. Current evaluation tools in DCP are subjective and time-consuming. Sensors could yield objective information on pathological patterns in DCP, but their reliability has not yet been evaluated. The objectives of this study were to evaluate (i) reliability and (ii) discriminative ability of sensor parameters. Methods-Inertial measurement units were placed on the arm, forearm, and hand of individuals with and without DCP while performing reach-forward, reach-and-grasp-vertical, and reach-sideways tasks. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) were calculated for reliability, and Mann-Whitney U-tests for between-group differences. Results-Twenty-two extremities of individuals with DCP (mean age 16.7 y) and twenty individuals without DCP (mean age 17.2 y) were evaluated. ICC values for all sensor parameters except jerk and sample entropy ranged from 0.50 to 0.98 during reach forwards/sideways and from 0.40 to 0.95 during reach-and-grasp vertical. Jerk and maximal acceleration/angular velocity were significantly higher for the DCP group in comparison with peers. Conclusions-This study was the first to assess the reliability of sensor parameters in individuals with DCP, reporting high between- and within-session reliability for the majority of the sensor parameters. These findings suggest that pathological movements of individuals with DCP can be reliably captured using a selection of sensor parameters.

Quality of Life After Deep Brain Stimulation of Pediatric Patients with Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy: A Prospective, Single-Arm, Multicenter Study with a Subsequent Randomized Double-Blind Crossover (STIM-CP).

BACKGROUND: Patients with dyskinetic cerebral palsy are often severely impaired with limited treatment options. The effects of deep brain stimulation (DBS) are less pronounced than those in inherited dystonia but can be associated with favorable quality of life outcomes even in patients without changes in dystonia severity. OBJECTIVE: The aim is to assess DBS effects in pediatric patients with pharmacorefractory dyskinetic cerebral palsy with focus on quality of life. METHODS: The method used is a prospective, single-arm, multicenter study. The primary endpoint is improvement in quality of life (CPCHILD [Caregiver Priorities & Child Health Index of Life with Disabilities]) from baseline to 12 months under therapeutic stimulation. The main key secondary outcomes are changes in Burke-Fahn-Marsden Dystonia Rating Scale, Dyskinesia Impairment Scale, Gross Motor Function Measure-66, Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM), and Short-Form (SF)-36. After 12 months, patients were randomly assigned to a blinded crossover to receive active or sham stimulation for 24 hours each. Severity of dystonia and chorea were blindly rated. Safety was assessed throughout. The trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02097693. RESULTS: Sixteen patients (age: 13.4 ± 2.9 years) were recruited by seven clinical sites. Primary outcome at 12-month follow-up is as follows: mean CPCHILD increased by 4.2 ± 10.4 points (95% CI [confidence interval] -1.3 to 9.7; P = 0.125); among secondary outcomes: improvement in COPM performance measure of 1.1 ± 1.5 points (95% CI 0.2 to 1.9; P = 0.02) and in the SF-36 physical health component by 5.1 ± 6.2 points (95% CI 0.7 to 9.6; P = 0.028). Otherwise, there are no significant changes. CONCLUSION: Evidence to recommend DBS as routine treatment to improve quality of life in pediatric patients with dyskinetic cerebral palsy is not yet sufficient. Extended follow-up in larger cohorts will determine the impact of DBS further to guide treatment decisions in these often severely disabled patients. © 2021 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Eye movements and stress during eye-tracking gaming performance in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy.

AIM: This study aimed to explore eye movements and stress during eye-tracking gaming performance in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP) compared with typically developing children, and associations between eye-tracking performance, eye movements, stress, and participants' characteristics. METHOD: This cohort study included 12 children with dyskinetic CP aged 5 to 12 years (mean age 8 years 7 months, standard deviation [SD] 2 years 3 months) and 23 typically developing children aged 5 to 13 years (mean age 9 years 0 months, SD 2 years 7 months). Participants played 10 eye-tracking games. Tobii X3-120 and Tobii Pro Lab were used to record and analyse eye movements. Stress was assessed through heart rate variability (HRV), recorded during rest, and eye-tracking performance using the Bittium Faros360° ECG Holter device. Eye-tracking performance was measured using gaming completion time. Fixation and saccade variables were used to quantify eye movements, and time- and frequency-domain variables to quantify HRV. Non-parametric statistics were used. RESULTS: Gaming completion time was significantly different (p < 0.001) between groups, and it was negatively correlated with experience (rs  = -0.63, p = 0.029). No significant differences were found between groups in fixation and saccade variables. HRV significantly changed from rest to eye-tracking performance only in typically developing children and not in children with dyskinetic CP. INTERPRETATION: Children with dyskinetic CP took longer to perform the 10 games, especially the inexperienced users, indicating the importance of the early provision of eye-tracking training opportunities. It seems that eye-tracking tasks are not a source of increased stress and effort in children with dyskinetic CP. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Participants with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP) took twice as long to perform 10 eye-tracking games than typically developing peers. Participants with dyskinetic CP with previous eye-tracking experience performed the games faster. Fixation and saccade variables were not significantly different between children with and without dyskinetic CP. Heart rate variability showed no differences between rest and performance in participants with dyskinetic CP. Gross Motor Function Classification System, Manual Ability Classification System, and Viking Speech Scale levels were not correlated to the eye movements or stress variables.

Stakeholder consensus for decision making in eye-gaze control technology for children, adolescents and adults with cerebral palsy service provision: findings from a Delphi study.

BACKGROUND: Limited research exists to guide clinical decisions about trialling, selecting, implementing and evaluating eye-gaze control technology. This paper reports on the outcomes of a Delphi study that was conducted to build international stakeholder consensus to inform decision making about trialling and implementing eye-gaze control technology with people with cerebral palsy. METHODS: A three-round online Delphi survey was conducted. In Round 1, 126 stakeholders responded to questions identified through an international stakeholder Advisory Panel and systematic reviews. In Round 2, 63 respondents rated the importance of 200 statements generated by in Round 1. In Round 3, 41 respondents rated the importance of the 105 highest ranked statements retained from Round 2. RESULTS: Stakeholders achieved consensus on 94 of the original 200 statements. These statements related to person factors, support networks, the environment, and technical aspects to consider during assessment, trial, implementation and follow-up. Findings reinforced the importance of an individualised approach and that information gathered from the user, their support network and professionals are central when measuring outcomes. Information required to support an application for funding was obtained. CONCLUSION: This Delphi study has identified issues which are unique to eye-gaze control technology and will enhance its implementation with people with cerebral palsy.

Test-retest reliability of the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale: measuring dystonia and choreoathetosis in dyskinetic cerebral palsy.

AIM: To assess test-retest reliability of the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale (DIS) in children and young adults with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: Dystonia and choreoathetosis were assessed in 15 participants with dyskinetic CP (13 males, 2 females; age range 5-22y, mean 14y, SD 4y) using the DIS in two separate sessions over 7 days. Exclusion criteria were changes in muscle relaxant medication within the previous 3 months, orthopaedic or neurosurgical interventions within the previous year, and spinal fusion. Intraclass correlation coefficient, confidence intervals (CI), standard error of measurement, and the minimal detectable difference (MDD) were determined for test-retest reliability. RESULT: Intraclass correlation coefficients of the DIS, the dystonia subscale of the DIS, and the choreoathetosis subscale of the DIS were 0.98 (95% CI 0.94-0.99), 0.97 (95% CI 0.92-0.99), and 0.96 (95% CI 0.90-0.99). The standard error of measurement and MDD were 2.6% and 7.2%. INTERPRETATION: The DIS is a reliable tool to assess dystonia and choreoathetosis; it remains stable over time in children and young adults with dyskinetic CP. These results add to the current evidence for good clinimetric properties of the DIS. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: The Dyskinesia Impairment Scale (DIS) shows stability in scoring dystonia and choreoathetosis. The total DIS score and dystonia and choreoathetosis subscales are clinically useful.

Use of the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale in non-ambulatory dyskinetic cerebral palsy.

AIM: To assess the responsiveness, concurrent validity, and feasibility of the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale (DIS) in non-ambulatory patients with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: The study is a secondary analysis of data collected in the IDYS trial, a randomized controlled trial on the effects of intrathecal baclofen (ITB). The DIS and Barry-Albright Dystonia Scale (BADS) were conducted at baseline and after 3 months of ITB or placebo treatment. Responsiveness was assessed by comparing the effect sizes and correlation of change after treatment between the DIS and BADS. Concurrent validity was evaluated by assessing the correlations between scales. Feasibility was evaluated for each DIS item by the number of participants who successfully accomplished the item. RESULTS: Thirty-three non-ambulatory patients (9 females, 24 males) with dyskinetic CP (ITB-treated: n=17, mean [SD] age: 14y 1mo [4y 1mo]; placebo-treated: n=16, mean [SD] age: 14y 7mo [4y]) were included in the study. The effect sizes for BADS and DIS were similar in The ITB-treated group (-0.29 and -0.22 respectively). Changes after treatment on the DIS dystonia subscale correlated with changes on the BADS (r=0.64; p<0.001). The DIS dystonia subscale and BADS correlated at baseline and follow-up (r=0.78; p<0.001 and r=0.79; p<0.001). Not all DIS activity items could be performed in this sample of patients. INTERPRETATION: For non-ambulatory patients with dyskinetic CP, the responsiveness of the DIS equalled the responsiveness of BADS. Concurrent validity was adequate. Feasibility for activity items was restricted in patients with severe dyskinetic CP. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: The Dyskinesia Impairment Scale (DIS) and Barry-Albright Dystonia Scale showed similar responsiveness in non-ambulatory patients with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP). No floor or ceiling effect was observed for DIS in non-ambulatory participants. The concurrent validity of DIS was adequate in non-ambulatory participants. Patients with dyskinetic CP in Gross Motor Function Classification System levels IV and V could not perform all DIS activity items.

Development of a Data Logger for Capturing Human-Machine Interaction in Wheelchair Head-Foot Steering Sensor System in Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy.

The use of data logging systems for capturing wheelchair and user behavior has increased rapidly over the past few years. Wheelchairs ensure more independent mobility and better quality of life for people with motor disabilities. Especially, for people with complex movement disorders, such as dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP) who lack the ability to walk or to handle objects, wheelchairs offer a means of integration into daily life. The mobility of DCP patients is based on a head-foot wheelchair steering system. In this work, a data logging system is proposed to capture data from human-wheelchair interaction for the head-foot steering system. Additionally, the data logger provides an interface to multiple Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) placed on the body of the wheelchair user. The system provides accurate and real-time information from head-foot navigation system pressure sensors on the wheelchair during driving. This system was used as a tool to obtain further insights into wheelchair control and steering behavior of people diagnosed with DCP in comparison with a healthy subject.

Pharmacological and neurosurgical interventions for managing dystonia in cerebral palsy: a systematic review.

AIM: To systematically review evidence for pharmacological/neurosurgical interventions for managing dystonia in individuals with cerebral palsy (CP) to inform a care pathway. METHOD: Searches included studies with a minimum of five participants with dystonia in CP receiving oral baclofen, benzodiazepines (clonazepam, diazepam, lorazepam), clonidine, gabapentin, levodopa, trihexyphenidyl, botulinum toxin, intrathecal baclofen (ITB), or deep brain stimulation (DBS). Evidence was classified according to American Academy of Neurology guidelines. RESULTS: Twenty-eight articles underwent data extraction: one levodopa, five trihexyphenidyl, three botulinum toxin, six ITB, and 13 DBS studies. No articles for oral baclofen, benzodiazepines, clonidine, or gabapentin met the inclusion criteria. Evidence for reducing dystonia was level C (possibly effective) for ITB and DBS; level C (possibly ineffective) for trihexyphenidyl; and level U (inadequate data) for botulinum toxin. INTERPRETATION: For dystonia reduction, ITB and DBS are possibly effective, whereas trihexyphenidyl was possibly ineffective. There is insufficient evidence to support oral medications or botulinum toxin to reduce dystonia. There is insufficient evidence for pharmacological and neurosurgical interventions to improve motor function, decrease pain, and ease caregiving. The majority of the pharmacological and neurosurgical management of dystonia in CP is based on clinical expert opinion. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Intrathecal baclofen and deep brain stimulation are possibly effective in reducing dystonia. Current evidence does not support effectiveness of oral medications or botulinum toxin to reduce dystonia. Evidence is inadequate for pharmacological/neurosurgical interventions impact on improving motor function, pain/comfort, and easing caregiving. The majority of the care pathway rests on expert opinion.

Time Course of Upper Limb Function in Children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy: A Five-Year Follow-Up Study.

Knowledge on long-term evolution of upper limb function in children with unilateral cerebral palsy (CP) is scarce. The objective was to report the five-year evolution in upper limb function and identify factors influencing time trends. Eighty-one children (mean age 9 y and 11 mo, SD 3 y and 3 mo) were assessed at baseline with follow-up after 6 months, 1, and 5 years. Passive range of motion (PROM), tone, muscle, and grip strength were assessed. Activity measurements included Melbourne Assessment, Jebsen-Taylor test, Assisting Hand Assessment (AHA), and ABILHAND-Kids. At 5-year follow-up, PROM (p < 0.001) and AHA scores (p < 0.001) decreased, whereas an improvement was seen for grip strength (p < 0.001), Melbourne Assessment (p = 0.003), Jebsen-Taylor test (p < 0.001), and ABILHAND-Kids (p < 0.001). Age influenced the evolution of AHA scores (p = 0.003), with younger children being stable over time, but from 9 years onward, children experienced a decrease in bimanual performance. Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) levels also affected the evolution of AHA scores (p = 0.02), with stable scores in MACS I and deterioration in MACS II and III. In conclusion, over 5 years, children with unilateral CP develop more limitations in PROM, and although capacity measures improve, the spontaneous use of the impaired limb in bimanual tasks becomes less effective after the age of 9 years.

Functional outcomes in children and young people with dyskinetic cerebral palsy.

AIM: This cross-sectional study aimed to map the functional profile of individuals with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP), to determine interrelationships between the functional classification systems, and to investigate the relationship of functional abilities with dystonia and choreoathetosis severity. METHODS: Fifty-five children (<15y) and young people (15-22y) (30 males, 25 females; mean age 14y 6mo, standard deviation 4y 1mo) with dyskinetic CP were assessed using the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS), Manual Ability Classification System (MACS), Communication Function Classification System (CFCS), Eating and Drinking Ability Classification System (EDACS), and Viking Speech Scale (VSS), as well as the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale. RESULTS: Over 50 per cent of the participants exhibited the highest limitation levels in GMFCS, MACS, and VSS. Better functional abilities were seen in EDACS and CFCS. Moderate to excellent interrelationship was found among the classification scales. All scales had significant correlation (rs =0.65 - 0.81) with dystonia severity except for CFCS in the young people group. Finally, only MACS (rs =0.40) and EDACS (rs =0.55) in the young people group demonstrated significant correlation with choreoathetosis severity. INTERPRETATION: The need for inclusion of speech, eating, and drinking in the functional assessment of dyskinetic CP is highlighted. The study further supports the strategy of managing dystonia in particular at a younger age followed by choreoathetosis in a later stage.

Clinical patterns of dystonia and choreoathetosis in participants with dyskinetic cerebral palsy.

AIM: The aim of the study was to map clinical patterns of dystonia and choreoathetosis and to assess the relation between functional classifications and basal ganglia and thalamus lesions in participants with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP). METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 55 participants with dyskinetic CP (mean age 14y 6mo, SD 4y 1mo; range 6-22y) were assessed with the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale and classified with the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS), Manual Ability Classification System (MACS), and Communication Function Classification System (CFCS). RESULTS: Dystonia and choreoathetosis are simultaneously present. Median levels of dystonia (70.2%) were significantly higher than levels of choreoathetosis (26.7%) and both were significantly higher during activity than at rest (both p<0.01). High correlations were found between dystonia levels and GMFCS level (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, rS =0.70; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.53-0.81; p<0.01) and MACS (rS =0.65; 95% CI 0.47-0.81; p<0.01), and fair correlation with CFCS (rs =0.36; 95% CI=0.11-0.57; p<0.05). No significant correlation was found between choreoathetosis levels and motor classifications. Finally, higher choreoathetosis levels were found in participants with pure thalamus and basal ganglia lesions (p=0.03) than mixed lesions, but not for dystonia (p=0.41). INTERPRETATION: Dystonia and choreoathetosis increase during activity. However, dystonia predominates and seems to have a larger impact on functional abilities. Our findings further suggest that choreoathetosis seems to be more linked to pure thalamus and basal ganglia lesions than dystonia.

An intensive eye-tracking intervention in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy: a multiple case study.

This study aimed to explore the effects of a four-week intensive eye-tracking intervention on children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP), focusing on goal attainment, communication competencies, stress levels, subjective workload, and caregivers' perception of psychosocial impact. A multiple case study design with non-concurrent, staggered multiple baselines was employed, involving three children aged 7, 12, and 13 years. The study included a randomized baseline period of two or three weeks, an intensive eye-tracking intervention, and a six-month follow-up. Two individual eye-tracking goals were identified and assessed using the Goal Attainment Scale, while communication competencies were evaluated with the Augmentative and Alternative Communication Profile: A Continuum of Learning. Stress levels were monitored through Heart Rate Variability measured by the Bittium Faros 360° ECG Holter during eye-tracking tasks. Subjective workload and psychosocial impact were assessed using pictograms and the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale, respectively. Descriptive statistics were applied for analysis. All participants attained and retained their eye-tracking goals, regardless of their initial functional profiles or prior experience with eye-tracking technology. Post-intervention improvements in communication competencies were maintained at the six-month follow-up. Variations in stress levels, subjective workload, and psychosocial impact were observed among participants across different phases of the study, aiding the interpretation of the results. The study concludes that a structured, tailored, four-week intensive eye-tracking intervention can yield successful results in children with DCP, irrespective of their baseline communication abilities or functional profile. Recommendations for future research, including more robust methodologies and reliable computerized tests, are provided.

A four-week intensive and structured eye-tracking intervention in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy appears feasible and may lead to the acquisition and retention of meaningful eye-tracking goals, regardless of functional profile or prior eye-tracking experience.Objective measurement of baseline communication competencies could assist the clinical practice in identifying areas of difficulty, thereby facilitating a tailored goal-setting and goal-attainment approach.Cognition, effort, and motivation may influence intervention outcomes and should be strongly considered in future studies with more robust methodology.Reliable computerized versions of pen-paper assessments with eye-tracking as a response modality are needed to enable a better understanding of skill-acquisition processes in the goal group.

A Novel Video-Based Methodology for Automated Classification of Dystonia and Choreoathetosis in Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy During a Lower Extremity Task.

BACKGROUND: Movement disorders in children and adolescents with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP) are commonly assessed from video recordings, however scoring is time-consuming and expert knowledge is required for an appropriate assessment. OBJECTIVE: To explore a machine learning approach for automated classification of amplitude and duration of distal leg dystonia and choreoathetosis within short video sequences. METHODS: Available videos of a heel-toe tapping task were preprocessed to optimize key point extraction using markerless motion analysis. Postprocessed key point data were passed to a time series classification ensemble algorithm to classify dystonia and choreoathetosis duration and amplitude classes (scores 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4), respectively. As ground truth clinical scoring of dystonia and choreoathetosis by the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale was used. Multiclass performance metrics as well as metrics for summarized scores: absence (score 0) and presence (score 1-4) were determined. RESULTS: Thirty-three participants were included: 29 with dyskinetic CP and 4 typically developing, age 14 years:6 months ± 5 years:15 months. The multiclass accuracy results for dystonia were 77% for duration and 68% for amplitude; for choreoathetosis 30% for duration and 38% for amplitude. The metrics for score 0 versus score 1 to 4 revealed an accuracy of 81% for dystonia duration, 77% for dystonia amplitude, 53% for choreoathetosis duration and amplitude. CONCLUSIONS: This methodology study yielded encouraging results in distinguishing between presence and absence of dystonia, but not for choreoathetosis. A larger dataset is required for models to accurately represent distinct classes/scores. This study presents a novel methodology of automated assessment of movement disorders solely from video data.