Mexican Biobank advances population and medical genomics of diverse ancestries.

Latin America continues to be severely underrepresented in genomics research, and fine-scale genetic histories and complex trait architectures remain hidden owing to insufficient data1. To fill this gap, the Mexican Biobank project genotyped 6,057 individuals from 898 rural and urban localities across all 32 states in Mexico at a resolution of 1.8 million genome-wide markers with linked complex trait and disease information creating a valuable nationwide genotype-phenotype database. Here, using ancestry deconvolution and inference of identity-by-descent segments, we inferred ancestral population sizes across Mesoamerican regions over time, unravelling Indigenous, colonial and postcolonial demographic dynamics2-6. We observed variation in runs of homozygosity among genomic regions with different ancestries reflecting distinct demographic histories and, in turn, different distributions of rare deleterious variants. We conducted genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for 22 complex traits and found that several traits are better predicted using the Mexican Biobank GWAS compared to the UK Biobank GWAS7,8. We identified genetic and environmental factors associating with trait variation, such as the length of the genome in runs of homozygosity as a predictor for body mass index, triglycerides, glucose and height. This study provides insights into the genetic histories of individuals in Mexico and dissects their complex trait architectures, both crucial for making precision and preventive medicine initiatives accessible worldwide.

Caracterización del bienestar en hogares mexicanos de niñas y niños con diarrea, Ensanut Continua 2022.

OBJETIVO: Analizar el nivel de bienestar en los hogares mexicanos de niñas y niños menores de cinco años que presentaron enfermedad diarreica aguda (EDA) en las últimas dos semanas en México, según la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Continua 2022 (Ensanut Continua 2022). Material y métodos. La encuesta se realizó entre julio y diciembre de 2022. Variable dependiente: ocurrencia de EDA. Variable independiente: nivel de bienestar de los hogares. Se realizó análisis bivariado y regresiones logísticas crudas y ajustadas. RESULTADOS: Se estima que 9.4% de los menores de cinco años presentaron EDA, de quienes 76.4% (IC95%: 69.0,82.5) pertenecía a hogares con nivel de bienestar bajo-medio. La EDA fue más frecuente en los niños y niñas de un año de edad (razón de momios ajustada [RMa] 3.00; IC95%: 1.76,5.11), en comparación con quienes tenían menor edad y en los hogares donde el agua para beber no es tratada (RMa 2.13; IC95%: 1.11,4.08). CONCLUSIONES: Se requiere fortalecer las medidas sanitarias preventivas de EDA en niñas y niños de un año de edad, principalmente implementar acciones para asegurar la disponibilidad de agua potable o el tratamiento adecuado para beberla, y planear, ejecutar y evaluar acciones de política pública integrales y multisectoriales para coadyuvar en garantizar el derecho humano a la salud durante la niñez.

Cobertura de vacunación en niños, niñas y adolescentes en México.

OBJETIVO: Describir las coberturas de vacunación en 2022 en niñas, niños y en adolescentes, así como comparar las prevalencias observadas con los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2021 (Ensanut 2021). Material y métodos. Análisis de datos obtenidos de la Ensanut 2022. RESULTADOS: En los niños menores de cinco años, las coberturas de vacuna con Bacilo de Calmette y Guérin (BCG), hepatitis B, pentavalente o hexavalente, neumocócica, antirotavirus y triple viral (SRP) fueron de 78.5% (IC95%: 70.8,84.6), 65.1% (IC95%: 58.4,71.2), 69.0% (IC95%: 61.8,75.4), 88.0% (IC95%: 83.0,91.7), 81.6% (IC95%: 75.7,86.2) y 61.8% (IC95%: 55.6,67.6), respectivamente. Al primer y segundo año de vida, 42.6% (IC95%: 34.3,51.4) y 26.6% (IC95%: 22.1,31.5) habían recibido el esquema correspondiente. Se redujo la cobertura estimada para primera dosis de SRP 72.6% (IC95%: 67.5,77.1) vs. 61.8% (IC95%: 55.6,67.5). En adolescentes, el antecedente de vacunación contra VPH, hepatitis B, tétanos y doble viral (SR) lo refirieron en 43.7% (IC95%: 39.9,47.6), 31.8% (IC95%: 29.8,34.0), 38.5% (IC95%: 35.9,41.2) y 32.6% (IC95%: 30.15,35.1). Conclusión. No se alcanza la meta de cobertura de 90% para ningún inmunógeno investigado. La cobertura para primera dosis de SRP se ha reducido.

Porcentaje de infección respiratoria aguda en menores de cinco años en México. Ensanut Continua 2022.

OBJETIVO: Estimar el porcentaje de infección respiratoria aguda (IRA) en menores de cinco años en las últimas dos semanas en México, de acuerdo con los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Continua 2022 (Ensanut Continua 2022). Material y métodos. Se analizaron datos de la Ensanut Continua 2022. RESULTADOS: El porcentaje de IRA fue de 27.6% (IC95%: 25.2,30.1). La prevalencia fue mayor en el primer tercil socioeconómico (44.1% [IC95%: 38.0,50.4]). El signo de alarma IRA más identificado fue "verse más enfermo" 33.0% (IC95%: 30.1,36.0) y el menos identificado fue "salir pus del oído" (1.5% [IC95%: 0.9,2.7]). CONCLUSIONES: Las IRA afectan cerca de una tercera parte de los niños y las niñas menores de cinco años en México, particularmente de los hogares con menores capacidades económicas. Es necesario fortalecer las estrategias de prevención, entre ellas la vacunación, el control y la promoción de la salud.

Porcentaje de enfermedad diarreica aguda en menores de cinco años en México. Ensanut Continua 2022.

OBJETIVO: Estimar el porcentaje de enfermedad diarreica aguda (EDA) en menores de cinco años en las últimas dos semanas, de acuerdo con los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Continua 2022. Material y métodos. Se analizaron los datos de menores de cinco años incluidos en la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Continua 2022 respecto a la EDA en las últimas dos semanas. Se compararon los datos con los de ediciones previas de la encuesta. RESULTADOS: El porcentaje de EDA en México fue de 9.4% (IC95%: 7.9,11.2), similar al de 2000, con diferencias por grupo etario. Durante el episodio de EDA, 38.7% (IC95%: 27.7,51.0) de las personas cuidadoras ofrecen menor cantidad de alimentos a la habitual. CONCLUSIONES: El elevado porcentaje de EDA en menores de cinco años en México en el 2022 evidencia la necesidad de fortalecer estrategias de prevención y promoción de la salud.

Vacunación en adultos y adultos mayores en México.

OBJETIVO: Estimar la prevalencia del antecedente de vacunación en adultos de 20 a 59 años y mayores de 60 años mediante autorreporte. Material y métodos. Análisis de datos obtenidos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2022 (Ensanut 2022). RESULTADOS: El 27.4% de los adultos de 20-39 años refirió haber recibido vacuna doble viral (sarampión y rubeola [SR]) y 57.3% de adultos de 20-59 años cualquier vacuna con toxoide tetánico (Td) en los últimos diez años. En mujeres de 29 a 49 años, 18.7% (IC95%: 17.0,20.5) y 58.46% (IC95%: 56.2,60.7) habían sido vacunadas con vacuna SR y Td, respectivamente. En mayores de 60 años, 48.8% (IC95%: 45.9,51.7), 24.4% (IC95%: 22.2,26.8) y 49.1% (IC95%: 46.1,52.2) informaron haber recibido cualquier vacuna conteniendo Td, vacuna antineumococo y vacuna antiinfluenza estacional desde septiembre del año anterior a la encuesta, respectivamente. Conclusión. Los resultados de este estudio muestran que una proporción considerable de adultos, mujeres en edad fértil y adultos mayores no estaban protegidos contra enfermedades prevenibles por vacunación en 2022.

Knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and COVID-19 hesitancy in a large public university in Mexico city during the early vaccination rollout.

BACKGROUND: Vaccination against COVID-19 is a primary tool for controlling the pandemic. However, the spread of vaccine hesitancy constitutes a significant threat to reverse progress in preventing the disease. Studies conducted in Mexico have revealed that vaccination intention in Mexico among the general population ranges from 62 to 82%. OBJECTIVE: To know the prevalence of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and associated factors among academics, students, and administrative personnel of a public university in Mexico City. METHODS: We administered an online survey investigating sociodemographic aspects, knowledge, attitudes, practices, and acceptance/hesitancy regarding the COVID-19 vaccine. Using generalized linear Poisson models, we analyzed factors associated with vaccine hesitancy, defined as not intending to be vaccinated within the following six months or refusing vaccination. RESULTS: During May and June 2021, we studied 840 people, prevalence of vaccine hesitancy was 6%. Hesitancy was significantly associated with fear of adverse effects, distrust of physician's recommendations, lack of knowledge regarding handwashing, age younger than 40 years, refusal to use face masks, and not having received influenza vaccination during the two previous seasons. CONCLUSIONS: Vaccine hesitancy in this population is low. Furthermore, our results allowed us the identification of characteristics that can improve vaccine promotion.

[Trends in the prevalence of ARIs and ADDs in early childhood and associated factors: Ensanut 2012 and 100k.] / Tendencias en la prevalencia de IRA y EDA en la primera infancia y factores asociados: Ensanut 2012 y 100k.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the prevalence of acute respiratory infections (ARI) and acute diarrheal disease (ADD) among children younger than five years of age living in localities with less than 100 000 inhabitants in Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (Ensanut) 2012 and Ensanut 100k (2018). In Ensanut 100k, we evaluate the associated factors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analysis of both surveys and of the Mexican Meteorological System. RESULTS: The estimated prevalence of ARI was 45.1% in 2012 vs. 32.9% in 2018. The decrease was significant among medium and high-income households. There were no changes in trends for ADD. Among households with lower EC, ARI was associated with roofing material, temperature, and rainy precipitation while ADD was associated with lack of piped water. CONCLUSIONS: The estimated prevalence of ARI has decreased in medium and high income households. Some households and weather conditions are associated with ARI and ADD.

OBJETIVO: Estimar y comparar las prevalencias de infec- ciones respiratorias agudas (IRA) y enfermedades diarreicas agudas (EDA) en menores de cinco años, residentes en localidades con menos de 100 000 habitantes, mediante análisis de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (Ensanut) 2012 y la Ensanut 100k (2018). En la Ensanut 100k se evaluaron los factores asociados con IRA y EDA. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Análisis de ambas encuestas e información meteorológica de la Comisión Nacional del Agua. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia global estimada de IRA fue de 45.1% en 2012 vs. 32.9% en 2018. La disminución fue significativa en hogares de medianas y mayores capacidades económicas (CE). No se observaron cambios significativos para las EDA. En hogares con menores CE, las IRA se asociaron con material del techo y temperatura y las EDA con privación de agua entubada. CONCLUSIONES: Entre 2012 y 2018, la prevalencia de IRA disminuyó en hogares de medianas y mayores CE. Algunas condiciones de vivienda y meteorológicas se asocian con IRA y EDA.

[Trends in vaccination coverage among children aged 12-23 and 24-35 months in Mexico. Ensanut 2012 and Ensanut 100]. / Tendencias en las coberturas de vacunación en niños de 12 a 23 y 24 a 35 meses en México.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate and compare vaccination coverage among children aged 12-23 and 24-35 months living in localities with less than 100 000 inhabitants in Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (Ensanut) 2012 and Ensanut 100k (2018). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Estimate of coverage with both surveys. RESULTS: Between 2012 and 2018, according to proof and self-report, the coverage of the basic scheme was maintained in children aged 12-23 (51.6 vs. 60.2%) and 24-35 months (51.4 vs. 50.0%). Similarly, only with proof (53.9 vs. 51.3% and 52.8 vs. 44.2%). In children aged 24-35 months, the coverage of the reinforced basic scheme reinforcements with probative document and self-report (30.9 vs. 34.0%) and only with reinforcements (30.2 vs. 27.8%) was maintained. Coverage with second and third doses of hepatitis B in both age groups decreased; additionally, first dose of measlesmumps-rubella vaccine (SRP, in Spanish) and third dose of Pentavalent in children aged 24-35 months. CONCLUSIONS: Coverages were maintained by schemes, despite reductions in hepatitis B, pentavalent and SRP.

OBJETIVO: Comparar coberturas de vacunación en niños de 12-23 y 24-35 meses de edad de localidades menores de 100 000 habitantes en México, entre 2012 (Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Ensanut] 2012) y 2018 (Ensanut 100k). MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estimación de coberturas con ambas encuestas. RESULTADOS: Entre 2012 y 2018, se mantuvo la cobertura del Esquema básico, con comprobante y autorreporte, en niños de 12-23 (51.6 vs. 60.2%) y 24-35 meses (51.4 vs. 50.0%), y sólo con comprobante (53.9 vs. 51.3% y 52.8 vs. 44.2%). Se mantuvo la cobertura del Esquema básico más refuerzos en niños de 24-35 meses, comprobante y autorreporte (30.9 vs. 34.0%) y sólo con comprobante (30.2 vs. 27.8%). Disminuyeron las coberturas con segunda y tercera dosis de hepatitis B en niños de 12-23 y 24-35 meses, y con primera dosis de triple viral (SRP) y tercera de pentavalente en niños de 24-35 meses. CONCLUSIONES: Se mantuvieron las coberturas del Esquema básico y Esquema básico más refuerzos aunque disminuyeron las coberturas con hepatitis B, pentavalente y SRP.

Seroprevalence of Poliomyelitis Antibodies Among Children Aged 1 to 4 Years Old and Factors Associated With Poliovirus Susceptibility; Mexican Health and Nutrition Survey, 2012.

Background: An essential component of the "Polio Eradication and Endgame Strategic Plan 2013-2018" is the evaluation of population immunity. Mexico introduced the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) into its routine immunization schedule in 2007 but continued to give trivalent oral polio vaccine OPV twice a year during National Health Weeks through 2016. Methods: To describe the seroprevalence of poliomyelitis among children one to four years old in Mexico and analyze risk factors for susceptibility. We detected antibodies to poliovirus type 1 by microneutralization test in 966 serum samples randomly selected from the National Health and Nutrition Survey, 2012. We assessed variables associated with susceptibility using multivariable logistic regression. Results: The overall weighted seroprevalence of the general population was 98.39% (95% confidence interval [CI] 96.76-99.21). We found significant differences of prevalence according to age (94.39%, 95% CI 87.56-97.58; 99.02%, 95% CI 95.68-99.79; 99.82%, 95% CI 98.77-99.98; and 100% among children 1, 2, 3, and 4 years old respectively) and number of IPV doses (96.91%, 95% CI 90.55-99.44; 100%; 97.85%, 95% CI 94.46-99.18; and 99.92%, 95% CI 99.45-99.98 for 1 2, 3, and 4 number of doses, respectively). Multivariate analyses showed that susceptibility was associated with younger age, fewer doses of IPV, and certain socioeconomic levels. Conclusions: Overall seroprevalence was high. However, we found susceptible children among younger ages and children with fewer or unknown IPV doses belonging to certain socioeconomic strata. Results are relevant for countries transitioning from OPV to IPV and underline the importance of achieving high coverage with IPV.

Effect of isoniazid on antigen-specific interferon-γ secretion in latent tuberculosis.

Treatment of persons with latent tuberculosis (TB) infection at greatest risk of reactivation is an important component of TB control and elimination strategies. Biomarkers evaluating the effectiveness of treatment of latent TB infection have not yet been identified. This information would enhance control efforts and assist the evaluation of new treatment regimes. We designed a two-group, two-arm, randomised clinical study of tuberculin skin test-positive participants: 26 with documented contact with TB patients and 34 with non-documented contact. Participants in each group were randomly assigned to the immediate- or deferred-isoniazid treatment arms. Assays of in vitro interferon (IFN)-γ secretion in response to recombinant Rv1737 and overlapping synthetic peptide pools from various groups of immunodominant proteins were performed. During isoniazid therapy, a significant increase from baseline in the proportion of IFN-γ responders to the 10-kDa culture filtrate protein, Rv2031, Rv0849, Rv1986, Rv2659c, Rv2693c and the recombinant Rv1737 protein was observed (p⩽0.05). The peptide pool of Rv0849 and Rv1737 recombinant proteins induced the highest percentage of IFN-γ responders after isoniazid therapy. The in vitro IFN-γ responses to these proteins might represent useful markers to evaluate changes associated with treatment of latent TB infection.

Association of diabetes and tuberculosis: impact on treatment and post-treatment outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the clinical consequences of pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) among patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). METHODS: We conducted a prospective study of patients with TB in Southern Mexico. From 1995 to 2010, patients with acid-fast bacilli or Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum samples underwent epidemiological, clinical and microbiological evaluation. Annual follow-ups were performed to ascertain treatment outcome, recurrence, relapse and reinfection. RESULTS: The prevalence of DM among 1262 patients with pulmonary TB was 29.63% (n=374). Patients with DM and pulmonary TB had more severe clinical manifestations (cavities of any size on the chest x-ray, adjusted OR (aOR) 1.80, 95% CI 1.35 to 2.41), delayed sputum conversion (aOR 1.51, 95% CI 1.09 to 2.10), a higher probability of treatment failure (aOR 2.93, 95% CI 1.18 to 7.23), recurrence (adjusted HR (aHR) 1.76, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.79) and relapse (aHR 1.83, 95% CI 1.04 to 3.23). Most of the second episodes among patients with DM were caused by bacteria with the same genotype but, in 5/26 instances (19.23%), reinfection with a different strain occurred. CONCLUSIONS: Given the growing epidemic of DM worldwide, it is necessary to add DM prevention and control strategies to TB control programmes and vice versa and to evaluate their effectiveness. The concurrence of both diseases potentially carries a risk of global spreading, with serious implications for TB control and the achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.

[Vaccination coverage in young, middle age and elderly adults in Mexico]. / Cobertura de vacunación en adultos y adultos mayores en México.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate vaccination coverage in adults 20 years of age and older. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analysis of data obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2012. RESULTS: Among adults 20-59 years old coverage with complete scheme, measles and rubella (MR) and tetanus toxoid and diphtheria toxoid (Td) was 44.7,49. and 67.3%, respectively. Coverage and percentage of vaccination were significantly higher among women than men. Among women 20-49 years coverages with complete scheme, MR and Td were 48.3, 53.2 and 69.8%, respectively. Among adults 60-64 years old, coverage with complete scheme, Td and influenza vaccine were 46.5, 66.2 and 56.0%, respectively. Among adults >65 years coverages for complete scheme, Td, influenza vaccine and pneumococcal vaccine were 44.0, 69.0, 63.3 and 62.0%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Vaccination coverage among adult population as obtained from vaccination card or self-report is below optimal values although data may be underestimated. Recommendations for improvements are proposed.

[Acute diarrheal diseases and feeding practices among children under five years in Mexico]. / Diarreas agudas y prácticas de alimentación en niños menores de cinco años en México.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of acute diarrheal diseases (ADD) during the two weeks previous to the interview among children <5 years of age and to describe alarm signs and feeding practices of parents and caregivers (PCG) during children's ADD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analysis of data from the National Health and Nutrition Surveys 2012 and 2006 and the National Health Survey 2000. RESULTS: ADD prevalence decreased significantly from 2006 (13.1%) to 2012 (11.0%), particularly in the lower socioeconomic status. "Frequent bowel movements" were the main warning sign identified by PCG (66.0%) in contrast to "crying without tears" (4.3%) and "blood in faeces" (0.5%); only 42% PCG reported administering oral rehydration therapy. Factors associated with ADD were child's age <1 year and mother's age <20 years. CONCLUSIONS: It is necessary to reinforce appropriate ADD preventive and treatment practices among PCG of children <5 years of age.

Safety and Tolerability of Six Months of Isoniazid Plus Pyridoxine or Three Months of Rifampicin for Tuberculosis among Subjects with Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Trial.

Tuberculosis (TB) associated with diabetes mellitus (DM) is a growing problem, particularly in low- and medium-resource countries. We conducted an open-label, parallel-group, randomized, and controlled trial in a tertiary care center in Mexico City to assess TB preventive treatment (TPT) with isoniazid (INH) or rifampicin (RIF) in people with type 2 DM. Participants were assigned six months of INH 300 mg/day plus pyridoxine 75 mg or three months of RIF 600 mg/day. The primary outcomes were adverse events resulting in permanent treatment cessation and considered possibly or probably related to study drugs. We included 130 subjects, 68 randomized to INH and 62 to RIF. We prematurely halted the study based on recommendations of the Adverse Event Safety Panel. There was no difference between arms in the overall frequency of adverse events. However, the INH group had significantly more permanent treatment interruptions due to grade 2 recurrent or grade 3 or 4 hepatoxicity. In comparison, the RIF arm had more treatment interruptions due to grade 3 or 4 gastrointestinal intolerance. TPT using INH or RIF is not safe enough to be considered a universal indication to patients with type 2 DM and TB infection. These results underline the need to search for alternative TB preventions with better safety profiles for type 2 DM patients.

Evaluating the impact of mobility in COVID-19 incidence and mortality: A case study from four states of Mexico.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico began at the end of February 2020. An essential component of control strategies was to reduce mobility. We aimed to evaluate the impact of mobility on COVID- incidence and mortality rates during the initial months of the pandemic in selected states. Methods: COVID-19 incidence data were obtained from the Open Data Epidemiology Resource provided by the Mexican government. Mobility data was obtained from the Observatory for COVID-19 in the Americas of the University of Miami. We selected four states according to their compliance with non-pharmaceutical interventions and mobility index. We constructed time series and analyzed change-points for mobility, incidence, and mortality rates. We correlated mobility with incidence and mortality rates for each time interval. Using mixed-effects Poisson models, we evaluated the impact of reductions in mobility on incidence and mortality rates, adjusting all models for medical services and the percentage of the population living in poverty. Results: After the initial decline in mobility experienced in early April, a sustained increase in mobility followed during the rest of the country-wide suspension of non-essential activities and the return to other activities throughout mid-April and May. We identified that a 1% increase in mobility yielded a 5.2 and a 2.9% increase in the risk of COVID-19 incidence and mortality, respectively. Mobility was estimated to contribute 8.5 and 3.8% to the variability in incidence and mortality, respectively. In fully adjusted models, the contribution of mobility to positive COVID-19 incidence and mortality was sustained. When assessing the impact of mobility in each state compared to the state of Baja California, increased mobility conferred an increased risk of incident positive COVID-19 cases in Mexico City, Jalisco, and Nuevo León. However, for COVID-19 mortality, a differential impact of mobility was only observed with Jalisco and Nuevo León compared to Baja California. Conclusion: Mobility had heterogeneous impacts on COVID-19 rates in different regions of Mexico, indicating that sociodemographic characteristics and regional-level pandemic dynamics modified the impact of reductions in mobility during the COVID-19 pandemic. The implementation of non-pharmaceutical interventions should be regionalized based on local epidemiology for timely response against future pandemics.

Imputation Performance in Latin American Populations: Improving Rare Variants Representation With the Inclusion of Native American Genomes.

Current Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) rely on genotype imputation to increase statistical power, improve fine-mapping of association signals, and facilitate meta-analyses. Due to the complex demographic history of Latin America and the lack of balanced representation of Native American genomes in current imputation panels, the discovery of locally relevant disease variants is likely to be missed, limiting the scope and impact of biomedical research in these populations. Therefore, the necessity of better diversity representation in genomic databases is a scientific imperative. Here, we expand the 1,000 Genomes reference panel (1KGP) with 134 Native American genomes (1KGP + NAT) to assess imputation performance in Latin American individuals of mixed ancestry. Our panel increased the number of SNPs above the GWAS quality threshold, thus improving statistical power for association studies in the region. It also increased imputation accuracy, particularly in low-frequency variants segregating in Native American ancestry tracts. The improvement is subtle but consistent across countries and proportional to the number of genomes added from local source populations. To project the potential improvement with a higher number of reference genomes, we performed simulations and found that at least 3,000 Native American genomes are needed to equal the imputation performance of variants in European ancestry tracts. This reflects the concerning imbalance of diversity in current references and highlights the contribution of our work to reducing it while complementing efforts to improve global equity in genomic research.

Predictive model for mortality in adults hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia.

INTRODUCTION: There is lack of information about predictive variables for pneumonia mortality in the Mexican population. OBJECTIVE: To identify a model for predictive variables for mortality in adults hospitalized with community acquired pneumonia (CAP). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Case-control study of patients hospitalized with CAP. The cases were incident cases with CAP that died during hospitalization and controls were those that did not die. The patients were followed during the study time until the discharge or outcome of each patient. The association between the independent variables (clinical, severity indices for pneumonia) with the outcome variable (in-hospital mortality) was evaluated by logistic regression. RESULTS: The model of associated variables with mortality were stratified age from 50-70 years (odds ratio [OR] 2.35; 95% confidence interval [95% CI: 1.06-5.17) and age >70 years (OR: 2.75; 95% CI: 1.18-6.37), woman (OR: 2.05; 95% CI: 1.11-3.8), antecedent of arterial hypertension (OR: 0.40; 95% CI: 0.20-0.80), tachycardia (OR: 2.68; 95% CI: 1.16-6.17), tachypnea (OR: 2.85; 95% CI: 1.54-5.29), leukocytes ≥ 12,000 (OR: 2.17; 95% CI: 1.21-3.87) and urea nitrogen > 30 mg/dL (OR: 4.85; 95% CI: 2.55-9.24). CONCLUSIONS: The proposed risk model is easy to document with clinical history and routine clinical laboratory variables.

ANTECEDENTES: Existe escasa información sobre variables predictoras para mortalidad por neumonía en población mexicana. OBJETIVO: Identificar un modelo de variables predictoras para mortalidad en adultos hospitalizados por neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC). MÉTODO: Estudio de casos y controles de pacientes hospitalizados por NAC. Los casos fueron pacientes con NAC que fallecieron durante la hospitalización y los controles fueron pacientes que no fallecieron. Los pacientes se siguieron durante el tiempo de estudio hasta el egreso o el desenlace de cada uno. La asociación entre las variables independientes (clínicas, índices de gravedad para neumonía) con la variable desenlace (muerte hospitalaria) se evaluó mediante regresión logística. RESULTADOS: Las variables asociadas a mortalidad fueron la edad estratificada de 50-70 años (odds ratio [OR] 2.35; intervalo de confianza del 95% [IC 95%]: 1.06-5.17) y > 70 años (OR 2.75; IC 95%: 1.18-6.37), ser mujer (OR 2.05; IC 95%: 1.11-3.8), antecedente de hipertensión arterial (OR 0.40; IC 95%: 0.20-0.80), taquicardia (OR 2.68; IC 95%: 1.16-6.17), taquipnea (OR 2.85; IC 95%: 1.54-5.29), leucocitos ≥ 12,000 (OR 2.17; IC 95%: 1.21-3.87) y nitrógeno de la urea >30 mg/dl (OR 4.85; IC 95%: 2.55-9.24). CONCLUSIONES: El modelo de riesgo que se propone es fácil de documentar con la historia clínica y las pruebas de laboratorio habituales.

Seroprevalence of measles antibodies and factors associated with susceptibility: a national survey in Mexico using a plaque reduction neutralization test.

Measles continues to be one of the leading causes of child mortality worldwide, even though a highly effective vaccine has existed for more than 40 years. We aimed to describe the seroprevalence of measles antibodies in Mexico in 2012 and the risk factors associated with susceptibility. A total of 7,785 serum samples were analyzed from the National Health and Nutrition Survey in Mexico. This national survey is representative of the general population, including noninstitutionalized adult, adolescent, and child populations. Antibody titers were classified into protective (> 120 mIU/mL) or susceptible (≤ 120 mIU/mL) levels. The weighted seroprevalence and susceptibility of the overall population were 99.37% (95% CI 99.07-99.58) and 0.63% (95% CI 0.42-0.93), respectively. Among 1-to-4-year-old children, 2.18% (95% CI 1.36-3.48) were susceptible to measles. Among adolescents and young adults, the prevalence of susceptibility was as follows: those 15-19 years of age had a prevalence of 0.22% (95% CI 0.09-0.57), and those 30-39 years of age had a prevalence of 1.17% (95% CI 0.47-2.85). Susceptibility was associated with young age, living in Mexico City, living in crowded households and unknown or nonvaccinated status among 1- to 5-year-old children. Although the overall sample population seroprevalence for measles is above 95%, increased susceptibility among younger children signals the importance of the timely administration of the first vaccine dose at 12 months of age. Furthermore, increased susceptibility among specific subgroups indicates the need to reinforce current vaccination policies, including the immunization of unvaccinated or incompletely vaccinated individuals from 10 to 39 years of age.

Genotyping and spatial analysis of pulmonary tuberculosis and diabetes cases in the state of Veracruz, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Genotyping and georeferencing in tuberculosis (TB) have been used to characterize the distribution of the disease and occurrence of transmission within specific groups and communities. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that diabetes mellitus (DM) and pulmonary TB may occur in spatial and molecular aggregations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of patients with pulmonary TB. The study area included 12 municipalities in the Sanitary Jurisdiction of Orizaba, Veracruz, México. Patients with acid-fast bacilli in sputum smears and/or Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum cultures were recruited from 1995 to 2010. Clinical (standardized questionnaire, physical examination, chest X-ray, blood glucose test and HIV test), microbiological, epidemiological, and molecular evaluations were carried out. Patients were considered "genotype-clustered" if two or more isolates from different patients were identified within 12 months of each other and had six or more IS6110 bands in an identical pattern, or < 6 bands with identical IS6110 RFLP patterns and spoligotype with the same spacer oligonucleotides. Residential and health care centers addresses were georeferenced. We used a Jeep hand GPS. The coordinates were transferred from the GPS files to ArcGIS using ArcMap 9.3. We evaluated global spatial aggregation of patients in IS6110-RFLP/ spoligotype clusters using global Moran´s I. Since global distribution was not random, we evaluated "hotspots" using Getis-Ord Gi* statistic. Using bivariate and multivariate analysis we analyzed sociodemographic, behavioral, clinic and bacteriological conditions associated with "hotspots". We used STATA® v13.1 for all statistical analysis. RESULTS: From 1995 to 2010, 1,370 patients >20 years were diagnosed with pulmonary TB; 33% had DM. The proportion of isolates that were genotyped was 80.7% (n = 1105), of which 31% (n = 342) were grouped in 91 genotype clusters with 2 to 23 patients each; 65.9% of total clusters were small (2 members) involving 35.08% of patients. Twenty three (22.7) percent of cases were classified as recent transmission. Moran`s I indicated that distribution of patients in IS6110-RFLP/spoligotype clusters was not random (Moran`s I = 0.035468, Z value = 7.0, p = 0.00). Local spatial analysis showed statistically significant spatial aggregation of patients in IS6110-RFLP/spoligotype clusters identifying "hotspots" and "coldspots". GI* statistic showed that the hotspot for spatial clustering was located in Camerino Z. Mendoza municipality; 14.6% (50/342) of patients in genotype clusters were located in a hotspot; of these, 60% (30/50) lived with DM. Using logistic regression the statistically significant variables associated with hotspots were: DM [adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) 7.04, 95% Confidence interval (CI) 3.03-16.38] and attending the health center in Camerino Z. Mendoza (aOR18.04, 95% CI 7.35-44.28). CONCLUSIONS: The combination of molecular and epidemiological information with geospatial data allowed us to identify the concurrence of molecular clustering and spatial aggregation of patients with DM and TB. This information may be highly useful for TB control programs.