Altered cellular localisation and expression, together with unconventional protein trafficking, of prion protein, PrPC, in type 1 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) is a conserved mammalian glycoprotein found on the outer plasma membrane leaflet through a glycophosphatidylinositol anchor. Although PrPC is expressed by a wide range of tissues throughout the body, the complete repertoire of its functions has not been fully determined. The misfolded pathogenic isoform PrPSc (the scrapie form of PrP) is a causative agent of neurodegenerative prion diseases. The aim of this study is to evaluate PrPC localisation, expression and trafficking in pancreases from organ donors with and without type 1 diabetes and to infer PrPC function through studies on interacting protein partners. METHODS: In order to evaluate localisation and trafficking of PrPC in the human pancreas, 12 non-diabetic, 12 type 1 diabetic and 12 autoantibody-positive organ donor tissue samples were analysed using immunofluorescence analysis. Furthermore, total RNA was isolated from 29 non-diabetic, 29 type 1 diabetic and 24 autoantibody-positive donors to estimate PrPC expression in the human pancreas. Additionally, we performed PrPC-specific immunoblot analysis on total pancreatic protein from non-diabetic and type 1 diabetic organ donors to test whether changes in PrPC mRNA levels leads to a concomitant increase in PrPC protein levels in human pancreases. RESULTS: In non-diabetic and type 1 diabetic pancreases (the latter displaying both insulin-positive [INS(+)] and -negative [INS(-)] islets), we found PrPC in islets co-registering with beta cells in all INS(+) islets and, strikingly, unexpected activation of PrPC in alpha cells within diabetic INS(-) islets. We found PrPC localised to the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) but not the Golgi, defining two cellular pools and an unconventional protein trafficking mechanism bypassing the Golgi. We demonstrate PrPC co-registration with established protein partners, neural cell adhesion molecule 1 (NCAM1) and stress-inducible phosphoprotein 1 (STI1; encoded by STIP1) on the plasma membrane and ER, respectively, linking PrPC function with cyto-protection, signalling, differentiation and morphogenesis. We demonstrate that both PRNP (encoding PrPC) and STIP1 gene expression are dramatically altered in type 1 diabetic and autoantibody-positive pancreases. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: As the first study to address PrPC expression in non-diabetic and type 1 diabetic human pancreas, we provide new insights for PrPC in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes. We evaluated the cell-type specific expression of PrPC in the human pancreas and discovered possible connections with potential interacting proteins that we speculate might address mechanisms relevant to the role of PrPC in the human pancreas.

C-terminal proline deletions in KCNC3 cause delayed channel inactivation and an adult-onset progressive SCA13 with spasticity.

Mutations in the potassium channel gene KCNC3 (Kv3.3) cause the autosomal dominant neurological disease, spinocerebellar ataxia 13 (SCA13). In this study, we expand the genotype-phenotype repertoire of SCA13 by describing the novel KCNC3 deletion p.Pro583_Pro585del highlighting the allelic heterogeneity observed in SCA13 patients. We characterize adult-onset, progressive clinical symptoms of two afflicted kindred and introduce the symptom of profound spasticity not previously associated with the SCA13 phenotype. We also present molecular and electrophysiological characterizations of the mutant protein in mammalian cell culture. Mechanistically, the p.Pro583_Pro585del protein showed normal membrane trafficking with an altered electrophysiological profile, including slower inactivation and decreased sensitivity to the inactivation-accelerating effects of the actin depolymerizer latrunculin B. Taken together, our results highlight the clinical importance of the intracellular C-terminal portion of Kv3.3 and its association with ion channel function.

A TEAD1/p65 complex regulates the eutherian-conserved MnSOD intronic enhancer, eRNA transcription and the innate immune response.

Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), a critical anti-oxidant enzyme, detoxifies the mitochondrial-derived reactive oxygen species, superoxide, elicited through normal respiration or the inflammatory response. Proinflammatory stimuli induce MnSOD gene expression through a eutherian-conserved, intronic enhancer element. We identified two prototypic enhancer binding proteins, TEAD1 and p65, that when co-expressed induce MnSOD expression comparable to pro-inflammatory stimuli. TEAD1 causes the nuclear sequestration of p65 leading to a novel TEAD1/p65 complex that associates with the intronic enhancer and is necessary for cytokine induction of MnSOD. Unlike typical NF-κB-responsive genes, the induction of MnSOD does not involve p50. Beyond MnSOD, the TEAD1/p65 complex regulates a subset of genes controlling the innate immune response that were previously viewed as solely NF-κB-dependent. We also identified an enhancer-derived RNA (eRNA) that is induced by either proinflammatory stimuli or the TEAD1/p65 complex, potentially linking the intronic enhancer to intra- and interchromosomal gene regulation through the inducible eRNA.

KCNC3(R420H), a K(+) channel mutation causative in spinocerebellar ataxia 13 displays aberrant intracellular trafficking.

Spinocerebellar ataxia 13 (SCA13) is an autosomal dominant disease resulting from mutations in KCNC3 (Kv3.3), a voltage-gated potassium channel. The KCNC3(R420H) mutation was first identified as causative for SCA13 in a four-generation Filipino kindred with over 20 affected individuals. Electrophysiological analyses in oocytes previously showed that this mutation did not lead to a functional channel and displayed a dominant negative phenotype. In an effort to identify the molecular basis of this allelic form of SCA13, we first determined that human KCNC3(WT) and KCNC3(R420H) display disparate post-translational modifications, and the mutant protein has reduced complex glycan adducts. Immunohistochemical analyses demonstrated that KCNC3(R420H) was not properly trafficking to the plasma membrane and surface biotinylation demonstrated that KCNC3(R420H) exhibited only 24% as much surface expression as KCNC3(WT). KCNC3(R420H) trafficked through the ER but was retained in the Golgi. KCNC3(R420H) expression results in altered Golgi and cellular morphology. Electron microscopy of KCNC3(R420H) localization further supports retention in the Golgi. These results are specific to the KCNC3(R420H) allele and provide new insight into the molecular basis of disease manifestation in SCA13.

A distal enhancer controls cytokine-dependent human cPLA2α gene expression.

Specific control of group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2α or PLA2G4A) expression modulates arachidonic acid production, thus tightly regulating the downstream effects of pro- and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids. The significance of this pathway in human disease is apparent in a range of pathologies from inflammation to tumorigenesis. While much of the regulation of cPLA2α has focused on posttranslational phosphorylation of the protein, studies on transcriptional regulation of this gene have focused only on proximal promoter regions. We have identified a DNase I hypersensitive site encompassing a 5' distal enhancer element containing a highly conserved consensus AP-1 site involved in transcriptional activation of cPLA2α by interleukin (IL)-1ß. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), knockdown, knockout, and overexpression analyses have shown that c-Jun acts both in a negative and positive regulatory role. Transcriptional activation of cPLA2α occurs through the phosphorylation of c-Jun in conjunction with increased association of C/EBPß with the distal novel enhancer. The association of C/EBPß with the transcriptional activation complex does not require an obvious DNA binding site. These data provide new and important contributions to the understanding of cPLA2α regulation at the transcriptional level, with implications for eicosanoid metabolism, cellular signaling, and disease pathogenesis.

Conservation of the PTEN catalytic motif in the bacterial undecaprenyl pyrophosphate phosphatase, BacA/UppP.

Isoprenoid lipid carriers are essential in protein glycosylation and bacterial cell envelope biosynthesis. The enzymes involved in their metabolism (synthases, kinases and phosphatases) are therefore critical to cell viability. In this review, we focus on two broad groups of isoprenoid pyrophosphate phosphatases. One group, containing phosphatidic acid phosphatase motifs, includes the eukaryotic dolichyl pyrophosphate phosphatases and proposed recycling bacterial undecaprenol pyrophosphate phosphatases, PgpB, YbjB and YeiU/LpxT. The second group comprises the bacterial undecaprenol pyrophosphate phosphatase, BacA/UppP, responsible for initial formation of undecaprenyl phosphate, which we predict contains a tyrosine phosphate phosphatase motif resembling that of the tumour suppressor, phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN). Based on protein sequence alignments across species and 2D structure predictions, we propose catalytic and lipid recognition motifs unique to BacA/UppP enzymes. The verification of our proposed active-site residues would provide new strategies for the development of substrate-specific inhibitors which mimic both the lipid and pyrophosphate moieties, leading to the development of novel antimicrobial agents.

Regulation of human microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 by IL-1ß requires a distal enhancer element with a unique role for C/EBPß.

The studies of PGE2 (prostaglandin E2) biosynthesis have focused primarily on the role of cyclo-oxygenases. Efforts have shifted towards the specific PGE2 terminal synthases, particularly mPGES-1 (microsomal PGE synthase 1), which has emerged as the crucial inducible synthase with roles in pain, cancer and inflammation. mPGES-1 is induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines with studies focusing on the proximal promoter, mediated specifically through Egr-1 (early growth-response factor 1). Numerous studies demonstrate that the mPGES-1 promoter (PTGES) alone cannot account for the level of IL-1ß (interleukin 1ß) induction. We identified two DNase I-hypersensitive sites within the proximal promoter near the Egr-1 element and a novel distal site near -8.6 kb. Functional analysis of the distal site revealed two elements that co-operate with basal promoter expression and a stimulus-dependent enhancer. A specific binding site for C/EBPß (CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein ß) in the enhancer was directly responsible for inducible enhancer activity. ChIP (chromatin immunoprecipitation) analysis demonstrated constitutive Egr-1 binding to the promoter and induced RNA polymerase II and C/EBPß binding to the promoter and enhancer respectively. Knockout/knockdown studies established a functional role for C/EBPß in mPGES-1 gene regulation and the documented interaction between Egr-1 and C/EBPß highlights the proximal promoter co-operation with a novel distal enhancer element in regulating inducible mPGES-1 expression.

Induction of group IVC phospholipase A2 in allergic asthma: transcriptional regulation by TNFα in bronchoepithelial cells.

Airway inflammation in allergen-induced asthma is associated with eicosanoid release. These bioactive lipids exhibit anti- and pro-inflammatory activities with relevance to pulmonary pathophysiology. We hypothesized that sensitization/challenge using an extract from the ubiquitous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus in a mouse model of allergic asthma would result in altered phospholipase gene expression, thus modulating the downstream eicosanoid pathway. We observed the most significant induction in the group IVC PLA2 (phospholipase A2) [also known as cPLA2γ (cytosolic PLA2γ) or PLA2G4C]. Our results infer that A. fumigatus extract can induce cPLA2γ levels directly in eosinophils, whereas induction in lung epithelial cells is most likely to be a consequence of TNFα (tumour necrosis factor α) secretion by A. fumigatus-activated macrophages. The mechanism of TNFα-dependent induction of cPLA2γ gene expression was elucidated through a combination of promoter deletions, ChIP (chromatin immunoprecipitation) and overexpression studies in human bronchoepithelial cells, leading to the identification of functionally relevant CRE (cAMP-response element), NF-κB (nuclear factor κB) and E-box promoter elements. ChIP analysis demonstrated that RNA polymerase II, ATF-2 (activating transcription factor 2)-c-Jun, p65-p65 and USF (upstream stimulating factor) 1-USF2 complexes are recruited to the cPLA2γ enhancer/promoter in response to TNFα, with overexpression and dominant-negative studies implying a strong level of co-operation and interplay between these factors. Overall, our results link cytokine-mediated alterations in cPLA2γ gene expression with allergic asthma and outline a complex regulatory mechanism.

Monogenic Diabetes and Integrated Stress Response Genes Display Altered Gene Expression in Type 1 Diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) has a multifactorial autoimmune etiology, involving environmental prompts and polygenic predisposition. We hypothesized that pancreata from individuals with and at risk for T1D would exhibit dysregulated expression of genes associated with monogenic forms of diabetes caused by nonredundant single-gene mutations. Using a "monogenetic transcriptomic strategy," we measured the expression of these genes in human T1D, autoantibody-positive (autoantibody+), and control pancreas tissues with real-time quantitative PCR in accordance with the Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments (MIQE) guidelines. Gene and protein expression was visualized in situ with use of immunofluorescence, RNAscope, and confocal microscopy. Two dozen monogenic diabetes genes showed altered expression in human pancreata from individuals with T1D versus unaffected control subjects. Six of these genes also saw dysregulation in pancreata from autoantibody+ individuals at increased risk for T1D. As a subset of these genes are related to cellular stress responses, we measured integrated stress response (ISR) genes and identified 20 with altered expression in T1D pancreata, including three of the four eIF2α-dependent kinases. Equally intriguing, we observed significant repression of the three arms of the ISR in autoantibody+ pancreata. Collectively, these efforts suggest monogenic diabetes and ISR genes are dysregulated early in the T1D disease process and likely contribute to the disorder's pathogenesis.

Temporal Analysis of Amylase Expression in Control, Autoantibody-Positive, and Type 1 Diabetes Pancreatic Tissues.

Within the human pancreas, exocrine and endocrine cells control secretion of digestive enzymes and production of hormones to maintain metabolic homeostasis, respectively. While the vast majority of type 1 diabetes research efforts have focused on endocrine function and autoimmunity, recent studies identified a series of unique features (e.g., reduced weight and volume, increased density of leukocytes) within the exocrine pancreas in this disease, but the mechanisms underlying these aberrancies are unknown. Therefore, we histologically assessed amylase, insulin, glucagon, lipase, and/or trypsinogen in 78 organ donor pancreata from birth through adulthood in control subjects and those at various stages of type 1 diabetes. While amylase-positive (AMY+) acinar cells were detectable in pancreata from all study groups, tissues from individuals >2 years of age contained clusters of acinar cells devoid of amylase (AMY-). A majority of these AMY- cell clusters localized proximal to islets (i.e., peri-islet). Additionally, most AMY- clusters were positive for the exocrine enzymes lipase and trypsinogen. Interestingly, type 1 diabetes pancreata displayed significant reductions in the frequency of these AMY- cell clusters. These results support a contribution of the islet-acinar axis in pancreatic development and underscore a potential role for the exocrine pancreas in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes.

Contribution of human manganese superoxide dismutase tyrosine 34 to structure and catalysis.

Superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes are critical in controlling levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are linked to aging, cancer, and neurodegenerative disease. Superoxide (O(2)(*-)) produced during respiration is removed by the product of the SOD2 gene, the homotetrameric manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD). Here, we examine the structural and catalytic roles of the highly conserved active-site residue Tyr34, based upon structure-function studies of MnSOD enzymes with mutations at this site. Substitution of Tyr34 with five different amino acids retained the active-site protein structure and assembly but caused a substantial decrease in the catalytic rate constant for the reduction of superoxide. The rate constant for formation of the product inhibition complex also decreases but to a much lesser extent, resulting in a net increase in the level of product inhibited form of the mutant enzymes. Comparisons of crystal structures and catalytic rates also suggest that one mutation, Y34V, interrupts the hydrogen-bonded network, which is associated with a rapid dissociation of the product-inhibited complex. Notably, with three of the Tyr34 mutants, we also observe an intermediate in catalysis, which has not been reported previously. Thus, these mutants establish a means of trapping a catalytic intermediate that promises to help elucidate the mechanism of catalysis.

A Map of Human Type 1 Diabetes Progression by Imaging Mass Cytometry.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) results from the autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing ß cells. A comprehensive picture of the changes during T1D development is lacking due to limited sample availability, inability to sample longitudinally, and the paucity of technologies enabling comprehensive tissue profiling. Here, we analyzed 1,581 islets from 12 human donors, including eight with T1D, using imaging mass cytometry (IMC). IMC enabled simultaneous measurement of 35 biomarkers with single-cell and spatial resolution. We performed pseudotime analysis of islets through T1D progression from snapshot data to reconstruct the evolution of ß cell loss and insulitis. Our analyses revealed that ß cell destruction is preceded by a ß cell marker loss and by recruitment of cytotoxic and helper T cells. The approaches described herein demonstrate the value of IMC for improving our understanding of T1D pathogenesis, and our data lay the foundation for hypothesis generation and follow-on experiments.

Persistence of Pancreatic Insulin mRNA Expression and Proinsulin Protein in Type 1 Diabetes Pancreata.

The canonical notion that type 1 diabetes (T1D) results following a complete destruction of ß cells has recently been questioned as small amounts of C-peptide are detectable in patients with long-standing disease. We analyzed protein and gene expression levels for proinsulin, insulin, C-peptide, and islet amyloid polypeptide within pancreatic tissues from T1D, autoantibody positive (Ab+), and control organs. Insulin and C-peptide levels were low to undetectable in extracts from the T1D cohort; however, proinsulin and INS mRNA were detected in the majority of T1D pancreata. Interestingly, heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) for insulin and INS-IGF2, both originating from the INS promoter, were essentially undetectable in T1D pancreata, arguing for a silent INS promoter. Expression of PCSK1, a convertase responsible for proinsulin processing, was reduced in T1D pancreata, supportive of persistent proinsulin. These data implicate the existence of ß cells enriched for inefficient insulin/C-peptide production in T1D patients, potentially less susceptible to autoimmune destruction.

A KCNC3 mutation causes a neurodevelopmental, non-progressive SCA13 subtype associated with dominant negative effects and aberrant EGFR trafficking.

The autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a diverse group of neurological disorders anchored by the phenotypes of motor incoordination and cerebellar atrophy. Disease heterogeneity is appreciated through varying comorbidities: dysarthria, dysphagia, oculomotor and/or retinal abnormalities, motor neuron pathology, epilepsy, cognitive impairment, autonomic dysfunction, and psychiatric manifestations. Our study focuses on SCA13, which is caused by several allelic variants in the voltage-gated potassium channel KCNC3 (Kv3.3). We detail the clinical phenotype of four SCA13 kindreds that confirm causation of the KCNC3R423H allele. The heralding features demonstrate congenital onset with non-progressive, neurodevelopmental cerebellar hypoplasia and lifetime improvement in motor and cognitive function that implicate compensatory neural mechanisms. Targeted expression of human KCNC3R423H in Drosophila triggers aberrant wing veins, maldeveloped eyes, and fused ommatidia consistent with the neurodevelopmental presentation of patients. Furthermore, human KCNC3R423H expression in mammalian cells results in altered glycosylation and aberrant retention of the channel in anterograde and/or endosomal vesicles. Confirmation of the absence of plasma membrane targeting was based on the loss of current conductance in cells expressing the mutant channel. Mechanistically, genetic studies in Drosophila, along with cellular and biophysical studies in mammalian systems, demonstrate the dominant negative effect exerted by the mutant on the wild-type (WT) protein, which explains dominant inheritance. We demonstrate that ocular co-expression of KCNC3R423H with Drosophila epidermal growth factor receptor (dEgfr) results in striking rescue of the eye phenotype, whereas KCNC3R423H expression in mammalian cells results in aberrant intracellular retention of human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Together, these results indicate that the neurodevelopmental consequences of KCNC3R423H may be mediated through indirect effects on EGFR signaling in the developing cerebellum. Our results therefore confirm the KCNC3R423H allele as causative for SCA13, through a dominant negative effect on KCNC3WT and links with EGFR that account for dominant inheritance, congenital onset, and disease pathology.

Engineering and characterization of human manganese superoxide dismutase mutants with high activity and low product inhibition.

Human manganese superoxide dismutase is a mitochondrial metalloenzyme that is involved in protecting aerobic organisms against superoxide toxicity, and has been implicated in slowing tumor growth. Unfortunately, this enzyme exhibits strong product inhibition, which limits its potential biomedical applications. Previous efforts to alleviate human manganese superoxide dismutase product inhibition utilized rational protein design and site-directed mutagenesis. These efforts led to variants of human manganese superoxide dismutase at residue 143 with dramatically reduced product inhibition, but also reduced catalytic activity and efficiency. Here, we report the use of a directed evolution approach to engineer two variants of the Q143A human manganese superoxide dismutase mutant enzyme with improved catalytic activity and efficiency. Two separate activity-restoring mutations were found--C140S and N73S--that increase the catalytic efficiency of the parent Q143A human manganese superoxide dismutase enzyme by up to five-fold while maintaining low product inhibition. Interestingly, C140S is a context-dependent mutation, and the C140S-Q143A human manganese superoxide dismutase did not follow Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The re-engineered human manganese superoxide dismutase mutants should be useful for biomedical applications, and our kinetic and structural studies also provide new insights into the structure-function relationships of human manganese superoxide dismutase.

A cis-acting region regulates oxidized lipid-mediated induction of the human heme oxygenase-1 gene in endothelial cells.

OBJECTIVE: Several proatherogenic agents including oxidized LDL and its major component, 13-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid (13-HPODE), upregulate heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Our previous studies have demonstrated that 13-HPODE-mediated HO-1 induction occurs via transcriptional mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the molecular regulation and identify the signaling pathways involved in 13-HPODE-mediated HO-1 induction in human aortic endothelial cells. METHODS AND RESULTS: The half-life of HO-1 mRNA after stimulation with 13-HPODE was approximately 1.8 hours. Antioxidants such as N-acetylcysteine, iron chelation with deferoxamine mesylate, and protein kinase C inhibition with Gö6976 blocked HO-1 induction. Using promoter constructs up to 9.1 kb, no significant reporter activity was observed in response to 13-HPODE. A 13-HPODE-inducible DNase I hypersensitive site was identified that maps to a region approximately 10 to 11 kb from the transcription start site of the human HO-1 gene. Based on the DNase I analysis, a -11.6-kb human HO-1 promoter construct was generated and elicited a 2.5-fold increase in reporter activity, indicating that 13-HPODE-mediated human HO-1 induction requires, at least in part, sequences that reside between 9.1 and 11.6 kb of the human HO-1 promoter. CONCLUSIONS: Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms which control HO-1 gene expression will allow us to develop therapeutic strategies to enhance the cytoprotective potential of HO-1 in atherosclerosis.

Upstream stimulatory factors, USF1 and USF2, bind to the human haem oxygenase-1 proximal promoter in vivo and regulate its transcription.

The human HO-1 (haem oxygenase-1) gene encodes a microsomal enzyme responsible for the breakdown of haem, and is also cytoprotective in response to various cellular insults. HO-1 transcription is induced by a vast array of compounds including, but certainly not limited to, haem and heavy metals such as cadmium. In the present study, we show that upstream stimulatory factors, USF1 and USF2, ubiquitous proteins belonging to the basic helix-loop-helix-leucine zipper family of transcription factors, constitutively bind to the class B E-box located in the proximal promoter of the human HO-1 gene and are responsible for the enhancement of HO-1 gene transcription in human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells. Dimethylsulphate in vivo footprinting studies have identified three protected guanine residues in the E-box of the HO-1 proximal promoter. One of these guanine contact points is essential for USF binding, and when mutated mimics a deletion mutation of the entire E-box palindrome sequence encompassing all three guanine contact points. Binding of USF1 and USF2 to the HO-1 E-box was confirmed by chromatin immunoprecipitation and gel-shift assays. Furthermore, we show that overexpression of USF1 or USF2 enhances the basal expression of HO-1 and that expression of a USF dominant negative form reduces its expression. These results demonstrate for the first time that USF proteins bind to the human HO-1 promoter in vivo and are required for high-level expression of HO-1 by haem and cadmium in human renal epithelial cells.

Catalytic pathway of manganese superoxide dismutase by direct observation of superoxide.

Measurement of catalysis by MnSOD using direct observation of the UV absorbance of superoxide allows determination of steady-state catalytic constants. Stabilizing superoxide in aprotic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide permits the use of stopped-flow spectrophotometry, although significant information is lost in the 2- to 4-msec mixing time; generating superoxide by pulse radiolysis requires no mixing time. Studies show that kcat/Km for the decay of superoxide catalyzed by MnSOD proceeds at diffusion control. Investigations using solvent hydrogen isotope effects and enhancement of catalysis by exogenous proton donors show that kcat near 10(4) sec-1 contains a significant contribution from proton transfer steps. The active site of MnSOD is dominated by a hydrogen bond network comprising the manganese-bound aqueous ligand, the side chains of four residues (Gln-143, Tyr-34, His-30, and Tyr-166 from an adjacent subunit), as well as other water molecules. Interrupting this hydrogen bond network by conservative replacement of residues 30, 34, and 166 causes a 10- to 40-fold decrease in maximal velocity, interpreted as an effect on proton transport to the active site, with smaller effects on kcat/Km. Replacement of Gln-143 causes a much greater decrease in catalytic activity, by two to three orders of magnitude, and causes significant changes to the redox potential as well. During catalysis, MnSOD is inhibited by a peroxide complex of the metal in the active site, different from the inhibition of FeSOD and Cu,ZnSOD by Fenton chemistry. Site-specific mutagenesis of active-site residues alters the extent of product inhibition of MnSOD as well, indicating that this is not only a property of the metal. The replacement of Trp-161 with phenylalanine results in a variant that is completely blocked in catalysis by product inhibition.

Endothelin-1-mediated vasoconstriction alters cerebral gene expression in iron homeostasis and eicosanoid metabolism.

Endothelins are potent vasoconstrictors and signaling molecules. Their effects are broad, impacting processes ranging from neurovascular and cardiovascular health to cell migration and survival. In stroke, traumatic brain injury or subarachnoid hemorrhage, endothelin-1 (ET-1) is induced resulting in cerebral vasospasm, ischemia, reperfusion and the activation of various pathways. Given the central role that ET-1 plays in these patients and to identify the downstream molecular events specific to transient vasoconstriction, we studied the consequences of ET-1-mediated vasoconstriction of the middle cerebral artery in a rat model. Our observations demonstrate that ET-1 can lead to increases in gene expression, including genes associated with the inflammatory response (Ifnb, Il6, Tnf) and oxidative stress (Hif1a, Myc, Sod2). We also observed inductions (>2 fold) of genes involved in eicosanoid biosynthesis (Pla2g4a, Pla2g4b, Ptgs2, Ptgis, Alox12, Alox15), heme metabolism (Hpx, Hmox1, Prdx1) and iron homeostasis (Hamp, Tf). Our findings demonstrate that mRNA levels for the hormone hepcidin (Hamp) are induced in the brain in response to ET-1, providing a novel target in the treatment of multiple conditions. These changes on the ipsilateral side were also accompanied by corresponding changes in a subset of genes in the contralateral hemisphere. Understanding ET-1-mediated events at the molecular level may lead to better treatments for neurological diseases and provide significant impact on neurological function, morbidity and mortality.

Characterization of a mechanism to inhibit ovarian follicle activation.

OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate that a small molecule can induce the transcription factor Foxo3 in the ovary and lead to inhibition of follicle activation. DESIGN: Cell culture, organ culture, and animal studies. SETTING: University-based laboratory. ANIMAL(S): 23 female C57BL/6 mice. INTERVENTION(S): Human ovary cells and mouse ovaries in culture treated with 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) to mimic glucose deprivation, and mice intraperitoneally injected with 100 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg, or 600 mg/kg 2-DG daily for 2 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): In cell and organ culture, Foxo3 expression analyzed by quantitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR); in treated animals, expression of genes regulated by nutrient deprivation (Foxo3, ATF4, GRP78, CHOP, ASNS, c-Myc) measured in brain, kidney, and ovary by qRT-PCR; and ovarian follicles histologically classified and counted. RESULT(S): Foxo3 expression is induced by 2-DG at both the mRNA and protein level in human ovarian cell culture, possibly through ATF4-dependent gene regulation. Foxo3 expression is also induced by 2-DG in ovarian organ culture. Treatment of mice with 100 mg/kg 2-DG resulted in a 2.6 fold induction of Foxo3 in the ovary and a 58% decrease in type 3a primary follicles. CONCLUSION(S): Expression of Foxo3 is induced by nutrient deprivation in cell culture, organ culture, and in vivo. In mice, 2-DG treatment results in an inhibition of primordial follicle activation. These data indicate that Foxo3 induction by 2-DG may be useful for fertility preservation.