Intramedullary nailing of the proximal humerus: evolution, technique, and results.

Proximal humerus fractures are the third most common fracture in the elderly. Although most fractures can be treated conservatively with acceptable outcomes, certain fracture patterns are at high risk for progression to humeral malunions, nonunions, stiffness, and post-traumatic arthrosis. The goal of antegrade humeral nailing of proximal humerus fractures is to provide stability to a reduced fracture that allows early motion to optimize patient outcomes. Certain technical pearls are pivotal in managing these difficult fractures with nails; these include rotator cuff management, respect of the soft tissues, anatomic tuberosity position, blood supply maintenance, knowledge of the deforming forces on the proximal humerus, fracture reduction, and rehabilitation strategies. Modern proximal humeral nail designs and techniques assist the surgeon in adhering to these principles and have demonstrated promising outcomes. Humeral nail designs have undergone significant innovation during the past 40 years and now can provide stable fixation in the humeral shaft distally as well as improved stability in the head and tuberosity fragments, which were the common site of fixation failure with earlier generation implants. Compared with other fixation strategies, such as locking plate fixation, no compelling evidence exists to suggest one technique over another. The purpose of this review is to describe the history, results, new designs, and techniques that make modern intramedullary nailing of proximal humerus fractures a viable treatment option.

A prospective, multicenter study to evaluate clinical and radiographic outcomes in primary rotator cuff repair reinforced with a xenograft dermal matrix.

BACKGROUND: Minimal information is currently available on the outcome of rotator cuff repair reinforced with an extracellular matrix (ECM) graft. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the clinical and radiographic outcome of repair of large rotator cuff tears with ECM graft reinforcement. METHODS: This was a prospective study of 61 shoulders with large repairable rotator cuff tears (3 to 5 cm). The rotator cuff tears were surgically repaired and reinforced with a xenograft ECM graft. The average patient age was 56 years (range, 40-69 years). The average tear size was 3.8 cm. RESULTS: Follow-up was obtained at 6, 12, and 24 months in 58, 54, and 50 of the 61 patients, respectively. Functional outcome scores, isometric muscle strength, and active range of motion were significantly improved compared with baseline. Magnetic resonance imaging at 12 months showed retorn rotator cuff repairs in 33.9% of shoulders, using the criteria of a tear of at least 1 cm, and tears in 14.5% of the shoulders using the criteria of retear >80% of the original tear size. Three patients underwent surgical revision. Complications included 1 deep infection. CONCLUSIONS: Repair of large rotator cuff tears structurally reinforced with xenograft ECM resulted in improved functional outcomes scores and strength. Adverse events were uncommon, and the rate of revision surgery was low.

Biologic resurfacing of the glenoid with humeral head resurfacing for glenohumeral arthritis in the young patient.

BACKGROUND: Resurfacing of the glenoid with an interposition soft tissue graft in conjunction with humeral head arthroplasty has been proposed as an option to improve glenohumeral arthritis in young patients while avoiding the potential complications associated with total shoulder arthroplasty. There currently exist minimal outcomes data for this procedure, and the results have not been consistent. The purpose of this study was to report on the outcomes in our cohort of patients aged younger than 55 years. METHODS: A multicenter review of 16 patients who had undergone humeral head arthroplasty with soft tissue interposition grafting of the glenoid was performed. All patients had a minimum follow-up time of 24 months, unless revision surgery was required because of failure of the procedure. RESULTS: At a mean follow-up of 60 months, the patients showed improvement in the visual analog scale score for pain from 8.1 to 5.8 (P < .05), and the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score improved from 23.2 to 57.7 (P < .05). Forward elevation improved from 128° to 134° (P = .33), and external rotation improved from 28° to 32° (P = .5). Internal rotation showed no improvement. Conversion to a total shoulder arthroplasty was performed in 7 patients (44%) at a mean of 36 months. CONCLUSIONS: The optimal management for the young patient with arthritis has not yet been established. Because of the limited improvement in patient outcomes and the relatively high revision rate, biologic resurfacing of the glenoid with humeral head resurfacing is no longer our primary treatment option for young patients and should be used with caution.

Radiographic assessment of prosthetic humeral head size after anatomic shoulder arthroplasty.

BACKGROUND: Restoring the premorbid proximal humeral anatomy during shoulder arthroplasty is critical yet can be difficult because of the deformity of the arthritic head. The purpose of this study was to measure the variation between surgeons and between types of prosthetics in reproducing the anatomic center of rotation (COR) of the humeral head after anatomic shoulder arthroplasty. METHODS: The anteroposterior radiographs of 125 stemmed and 43 resurfacing shoulder arthroplasties, performed by 5 experienced surgeons, were analyzed. All patients had primary replacement for treatment of end-stage glenohumeral arthritis. A best-fit circle to preserved nonarticular humeral landmarks was used to define the difference between the anatomic COR and the prosthetic COR. A difference in COR of >3.0 mm was considered clinically significant and analyzed for the cause of this deviation. RESULTS: The average deviation of the postoperative COR from the anatomic COR was 2.5 ± 1.6 mm for stemmed cases and 3.8 ± 2.1 mm for resurfacings. Thirty-nine stemmed cases (31.2%) and 28 resurfacings (65.1%) were beyond 3.0 mm of deviation and regarded as outliers. The majority of the stemmed outliers and all resurfacing outliers were overstuffed. An improper humeral head size selection and inadequate reaming were the main reasons for the deviation in stemmed and resurfacing outliers, respectively. CONCLUSION: A large percentage of shoulder replacements demonstrated significant deviations from an anatomic reconstruction. Resurfacing arthroplasty exhibited significantly greater deviations compared with stemmed arthroplasty (P < .001), indicating that surgeons have more difficulty in restoring the anatomy with resurfacings. Further studies are needed to assess the clinical impact of these deviations.

Resection arthroplasty for failed shoulder arthroplasty.

BACKGROUND: As shoulder arthroplasty becomes more common, the number of failed arthroplasties requiring revision is expected to increase. When revision arthroplasty is not feasible, resection arthroplasty has been used in an attempt to restore function and relieve pain. Although outcomes data for resection arthroplasty exist, studies comparing the outcomes after the removal of different primary shoulder arthroplasties have been limited. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective multicenter review of 26 patients who underwent resection arthroplasty for failure of a primary arthroplasty at a mean follow-up of 41.8 months (range, 12-130 months). Resection arthroplasty was performed for 6 failed total shoulder arthroplasties (TSAs), 7 failed hemiarthroplasties, and 13 failed reverse TSAs. RESULTS: Patients who underwent resection arthroplasty demonstrated significant improvement in visual analog scale pain score (6 ± 4 preoperatively to 3 ± 2 postoperatively). Mean active forward flexion and mean active external rotation decreased, but this difference was not significant. Subgroup analysis revealed that postoperative mean active forward flexion was significantly greater in patients undergoing resection arthroplasty after failed TSA than after reverse TSA (P = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Resection arthroplasty is effective in relieving pain, but patients have poor postoperative function. Patients with resection arthroplasty for failed reverse shoulder arthroplasty have worse function than those with failed hemiarthroplasty or TSA. Surgeons should be aware of this when assessing postoperative function. There is no difference in functional outcome between hemiarthroplasty and TSA.

Antibiotic-loaded bone cement reduces deep infection rates for primary reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: a retrospective, cohort study of 501 shoulders.

BACKGROUND: Deep infection after primary reverse total shoulder arthroplasty is a devastating event and has an increased incidence compared with anatomic total shoulder arthroplasty. Recent reports in the hip and knee arthroplasty literature suggest that antibiotic-loaded bone cement may lower infection rates for primary arthroplasties. We conducted a retrospective cohort study to evaluate the effect of antibiotic-loaded bone cement vs plain bone cement on the prevention of deep infection after primary reverse total shoulder arthroplasty. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Four surgeons from their respective facilities participated in the retrospective cohort data collection. From 1999 to 2008, 501 consecutive primary reverse total shoulder arthroplasties were performed. Patients with revision of failed previous arthroplasties were excluded, and patients with any other previous shoulder procedure were included. Two groups were examined in this retrospective cohort: In group 1 (265 shoulders), the cement used for humeral fixation did not have antibiotics; in group 2 (236 shoulders), antibiotic-impregnated bone cement containing tobramycin, gentamycin, or vancomycin/tobramycin was used for fixation. RESULTS: At an average postoperative follow-up of 37 months, no deep infection had developed in the 236 shoulders in group 2, whereas a deep infection had developed in 8 of the 265 shoulders (3.0%) in group 1. This difference between the groups was significant (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Antibiotic-impregnated bone cement was effective in the prevention of postoperative deep infection after primary reverse total shoulder arthroplasty during short-term follow-up.

Is reverse shoulder arthroplasty appropriate for the treatment of fractures in the older patient? Early observations.

BACKGROUND: The treatment of comminuted proximal humerus fractures in older patients is challenging. Variable values of functional outcomes scores, ROMs, patient satisfaction, and bony healing have been reported with conventional techniques, including open reduction and internal fixation, percutaneous pinning, and hemiarthroplasty. Another alternative is reverse total shoulder arthroplasty, although it is unclear whether this provides better ROM or function. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: We (1) evaluated ROM, pain level, and American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons scores of patients who had a reverse total shoulder arthroplasty for displaced three- and four-part proximal humerus fracture and (2) identified clinical and radiographic complications from the procedure. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 30 patients in three institutions who had undergone a primary reverse total shoulder arthroplasty for displaced three- or four-part proximal humerus fractures. Mean age was 77 years (range, 65-94 years). Minimum followup was 12 months (mean, 23 months; range, 12-36 months). RESULTS: Mean postoperative American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score was 78 (range, 36-98), mean active forward flexion was 139° (range, 90°-180°), and mean active external rotation was 27° (range, 0°-45°). Mean American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons pain score was 0.7 (range, 0-5) and mean visual analog scale pain score was 1.1 (range, 0-5). Complications were identified in three of 30 patients (10%). CONCLUSIONS: At short term, reverse total shoulder arthroplasty relieved pain and improved function. The complication rate compared favorably with those reported for other treatment alternatives. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, therapeutic study. See Guidelines for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Histologic Analysis of Porcine Dermal Graft Augmentation in Treatment of Rotator Cuff Tears.

BACKGROUND: Biologic augmentation via extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds has been utilized to address rotator cuff tears with poor-quality tissue. PURPOSE: To evaluate the cellular changes in graft explants taken from patients treated with porcine dermal grafts for rotator cuff tears. STUDY DESIGN: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. METHODS: Four graft biopsy specimens were obtained from patients treated with porcine dermal grafts in an interposition technique for rotator cuff tears and compared with a nonimplanted graft and a normal rotator cuff specimen. Biopsy of the graft site was performed at 18 days, 3 months, 7 months, and 10.5 months after implantation. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was used to evaluate for cellular and vascular changes. Picrosirius red (PSR) stain with 90° polarized light was performed to evaluate collagen fibril size and orientation. All biopsy specimens were analyzed by a pathologist. RESULTS: There was evidence of progressive remodeling of the porcine dermal grafts. The most mature grafts demonstrated vessel infiltration and extensive remodeling without evidence of inflammation, foreign body reaction, or tissue rejection. PSR demonstrated increased organization of collagen domains, resembling normal tendon by 10.5 months postoperatively. CONCLUSION: This series suggests that ECM grafts may serve as an effective scaffold for host cell infiltration, collagen reorganization, and vascularization as a result of histologic changes demonstrated with retrieval of specimens from patients with rotator cuff tears that were augmented with porcine dermal grafts.

Humeral hemiarthroplasty with biologic resurfacing of the glenoid for glenohumeral arthritis. Two to fifteen-year outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Biologic glenoid resurfacing was developed in 1988 as an alternative to total shoulder arthroplasty in selected (usually younger) patients with primary, posttraumatic, or postreconstructive glenohumeral arthritis. A variety of biologic surfaces, including anterior capsule, autogenous fascia lata, and Achilles tendon allograft, have been combined with a humeral hemiarthroplasty. METHODS: From November 1988 to November 2003, thirty-four patients (thirty-six shoulders) who were managed with biologic glenoid resurfacing and humeral head replacement either with cement (ten shoulders) or without cement (twenty-six shoulders) were followed prospectively. The study group included thirty men and four women with an average age of fifty-one years. The diagnoses included primary glenohumeral osteoarthritis (eighteen shoulders), postreconstructive arthritis (twelve), posttraumatic arthritis (five), and osteonecrosis (one). Anterior capsule was used for seven shoulders, autogenous fascia lata for eleven, and Achilles tendon allograft for eighteen. All shoulders were assessed clinically and with serial radiographs. RESULTS: The mean American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score was 39 points preoperatively and 91 points at the time of the most recent follow-up. According to Neer's criteria, the result was excellent for eighteen shoulders, satisfactory for thirteen, and unsatisfactory for five. Glenoid erosion averaged 7.2 mm and appeared to stabilize at five years. There were no revisions for humeral component loosening. Complications included infection (two patients), instability (three patients), brachial plexitis (one patient), and deep-vein thrombosis (one patient). Factors that appeared to be associated with unsatisfactory results were the use of capsular tissue as the resurfacing material and infection. CONCLUSIONS: Biologic resurfacing of the glenoid can provide pain relief similar to total shoulder arthroplasty. It allows selected younger patients to maintain an active lifestyle, including weight-lifting and manual work, without the risk of polyethylene wear. On the basis of this and previous reviews, we currently recommend Achilles tendon allograft as the preferred resurfacing material when this option is chosen. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions to Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Indications, alternatives, and complications of external fixation about the elbow.

External fixation around the elbow is a concept as complex as the pathology that it treats. A myriad of potential pitfalls await the surgeon who casually applies a frame to any extremity, let alone a portion of one as complicated as the elbow. A careful understanding of the anatomy, specific technique, applications of the various devices commercially available, and rational alternatives to each problem is crucial for the judicial use of external fixation around the elbow. The potential benefits of the external fixator, however, are worthy of the surgeon's time to understand and pass on to his or her next patient.

Early follow-up of reverse total shoulder arthroplasty in patients sixty years of age or younger.

BACKGROUND: Reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) is an accepted treatment that provides reproducible results in the treatment of shoulder arthritis and rotator cuff deficiency. Concerns over the longevity of the prosthesis have resulted in this procedure being reserved for the elderly. There are limited data in the literature with regard to outcomes in younger patients. We report on the early outcomes of RSA in a group of patients who were sixty years or younger and who were followed for a minimum of two years. METHODS: A retrospective multicenter review of sixty-six patients (sixty-seven RSAs) with a mean age of 52.2 years was performed. The indications included rotator cuff insufficiency (twenty-nine), massive rotator cuff disorder with osteoarthritis (eleven), failed primary shoulder arthroplasty (nine), rheumatoid arthritis (six), posttraumatic arthritis (four), and other diagnoses (eight). Forty-five shoulders (67%) had at least one prior surgical intervention, and thirty-one shoulders (46%) had multiple prior surgical procedures. RESULTS: At a mean follow-up time of 36.5 months, mean active forward elevation of the arm as measured at the shoulder improved from 54.6° to 134.0° and average active external rotation improved from 10.0° to 19.6°. A total of 81% of patients were either very satisfied or satisfied. The mean American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) score and visual analog scale (VAS) score for pain improved from 40.0 to 72.4 and 7.5 to 3.0, respectively. The ability to achieve postoperative forward arm elevation of at least 100° was the only significant predictor of overall patient satisfaction (p < 0.05) that was identified in this group. There was a 15% complication rate postoperatively, and twenty-nine shoulders (43%) had evidence of scapular notching at the time of the latest follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: RSA as a reconstructive procedure improved function at the time of short-term follow-up in our young patients with glenohumeral arthritis and rotator cuff deficiency. Objective outcomes in our patient cohort were similar to those in previously reported studies. However, overall satisfaction was much lower in this patient population (81%) compared with that in the older patient population as reported in the literature (90% to 96%).

Angular-stable locked intramedullary nailing of two-part surgical neck fractures of the proximal part of the humerus. A multicenter retrospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: The ideal fixation technique for the treatment of proximal humeral fractures remains unclear. In the present study, we evaluated the experience of three surgeons with the treatment of two-part surgical neck fractures with angular-stable intramedullary fixation. METHODS: Forty-eight patients with forty-eight Neer two-part surgical neck proximal humeral fractures were managed with locked angular-stable intramedullary nail fixation by three surgeons. Shoulder pain and outcomes were quantified with Constant scores and standard radiographs. RESULTS: Thirty-eight patients (including twenty-eight female patients and ten male patients) with a mean age of sixty-five years were followed for at least twelve months (mean, twenty months; range, twelve to thirty-six months). All fractures healed primarily. The mean follow-up Constant score (and standard deviation) was 71 ± 12 points (range, 37 to 88 points), with a mean age-adjusted Constant score of 97% (range, 58% to 119%). The mean Constant pain score was 13 ± 2.2 (possible range, 0 to 15 points, with 15 points representing no pain). The mean forward flexion was 132° ± 22°. All fractures but one healed with a neck-shaft angle of ≥125°. CONCLUSIONS: Patients who were managed with locked angular-stable intramedullary nailing of two-part surgical neck proximal humeral fractures via an articular entry point had reliable fracture-healing, favorable clinical outcomes, and little residual shoulder pain.

Humeral hemiarthroplasty with biologic resurfacing of the glenoid for glenohumeral arthritis. Surgical technique.

BACKGROUND: Biologic glenoid resurfacing was developed in 1988 as an alternative to total shoulder arthroplasty in selected (usually younger) patients with primary, posttraumatic, or postreconstructive glenohumeral arthritis. A variety of biologic surfaces, including anterior capsule, autogenous fascia lata, and Achilles tendon allograft, have been combined with a humeral hemiarthroplasty. METHODS: From November 1988 to November 2003, thirty-four patients (thirty-six shoulders) who were managed with biologic glenoid resurfacing and humeral head replacement either with cement (ten shoulders) or without cement (twenty-six shoulders) were followed prospectively. The study group included thirty men and four women with an average age of fifty-one years. The diagnoses included primary glenohumeral osteoarthritis (eighteen shoulders), postreconstructive arthritis (twelve), posttraumatic arthritis (five), and osteonecrosis (one). Anterior capsule was used for seven shoulders, autogenous fascia lata for eleven, and Achilles tendon allograft for eighteen. All shoulders were assessed clinically and with serial radiographs. RESULTS: The mean American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score was 39 points preoperatively and 91 points at the time of the most recent follow-up. According to Neer's criteria, the result was excellent for eighteen shoulders, satisfactory for thirteen, and unsatisfactory for five. Glenoid erosion averaged 7.2 mm and appeared to stabilize at five years. There were no revisions for humeral component loosening. Complications included infection (two patients), instability (three patients), brachial plexitis (one patient), and deep-vein thrombosis (one patient). Factors that appeared to be associated with unsatisfactory results were the use of capsular tissue as the resurfacing material and infection. CONCLUSIONS: Biologic resurfacing of the glenoid can provide pain relief similar to total shoulder arthroplasty. It allows selected younger patients to maintain an active lifestyle, including weight-lifting and manual work, without the risk of polyethylene wear. On the basis of this and previous reviews, we currently recommend Achilles tendon allograft as the preferred resurfacing material when this option is chosen.