DNA-dependent protein kinase interacts functionally with the RNA polymerase II complex recruited at the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) long terminal repeat and plays an important role in HIV gene expression.

DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), a nuclear protein kinase that specifically requires association with DNA for its kinase activity, plays important roles in the regulation of different DNA transactions, including transcription, replication and DNA repair, as well as in the maintenance of telomeres. Due to its large size, DNA-PK is also known to facilitate the activities of other factors by providing the docking platform at their site of action. In this study, by running several chromatin immunoprecipitation assays, we demonstrate the parallel distribution of DNA-PK with RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) along the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) provirus before and after activation with tumour necrosis factor alpha. The association between DNA-PK and RNAP II is also long-lasting, at least for up to 4 h (the duration analysed in this study). Knockdown of endogenous DNA-PK using specific small hairpin RNAs expressed from lentiviral vectors resulted in significant reduction in HIV gene expression and replication, demonstrating the importance of DNA-PK for HIV gene expression. Sequence analysis of the HIV-1 Tat protein revealed three potential target sites for phosphorylation by DNA-PK and, by using kinase assays, we confirmed that Tat is an effective substrate of DNA-PK. Through peptide mapping, we found that two of these three potential phosphorylation sites are recognized and phosphorylated by DNA-PK. Mutational studies on the DNA-PK target sites of Tat further demonstrated the functional significance of the Tat-DNA-PK interaction. Thus, overall our results clearly demonstrate the functional interaction between DNA-PK and RNAP II during HIV transcription.

DNA dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) enhances HIV transcription by promoting RNA polymerase II activity and recruitment of transcription machinery at HIV LTR.

Despite reductions in mortality from the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), the presence of latent or transcriptionally silent proviruses prevents HIV cure/eradication. We have previously reported that DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) facilitates HIV transcription by interacting with the RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) complex recruited at HIV LTR. In this study, using different cell lines and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of HIV-infected patients, we found that DNA-PK stimulates HIV transcription at several stages, including initiation, pause-release and elongation. We are reporting for the first time that DNA-PK increases phosphorylation of RNAP II C-terminal domain (CTD) at serine 5 (Ser5) and serine 2 (Ser2) by directly catalyzing phosphorylation and by augmenting the recruitment of the positive transcription elongation factor (P-TEFb) at HIV LTR. Our findings suggest that DNA-PK expedites the establishment of euchromatin structure at HIV LTR. DNA-PK inhibition/knockdown leads to the severe impairment of HIV replication and reactivation of latent HIV provirus. DNA-PK promotes the recruitment of Tripartite motif-containing 28 (TRIM28) at LTR and assists the release of paused RNAP II through TRIM28 phosphorylation. These results provide the mechanisms through which DNA-PK controls the HIV gene expression and, likely, can be extended to cellular gene expression, including during cell malignancy, where the role of DNA-PK has been well-established.

Cocaine promotes both initiation and elongation phase of HIV-1 transcription by activating NF-κB and MSK1 and inducing selective epigenetic modifications at HIV-1 LTR.

Cocaine accelerates human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) replication by altering specific cell-signaling and epigenetic pathways. We have elucidated the underlying molecular mechanisms through which cocaine exerts its effect in myeloid cells, a major target of HIV-1 in central nervous system (CNS). We demonstrate that cocaine treatment promotes HIV-1 gene expression by activating both nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-ĸB) and mitogen- and stress-activated kinase 1 (MSK1). MSK1 subsequently catalyzes the phosphorylation of histone H3 at serine 10, and p65 subunit of NF-ĸB at 276th serine residue. These modifications enhance the interaction of NF-ĸB with P300 and promote the recruitment of the positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) to the HIV-1 LTR, supporting the development of an open/relaxed chromatin configuration, and facilitating the initiation and elongation phases of HIV-1 transcription. Results are also confirmed in primary monocyte derived macrophages (MDM). Overall, our study provides detailed insights into cocaine-driven HIV-1 transcription and replication.

Characterization of the DNA-unwinding activity of human RECQ1, a helicase specifically stimulated by human replication protein A.

The RecQ helicases are involved in several aspects of DNA metabolism. Five members of the RecQ family have been found in humans, but only two of them have been carefully characterized, BLM and WRN. In this work, we describe the enzymatic characterization of RECQ1. The helicase has 3' to 5' polarity, cannot start the unwinding from a blunt-ended terminus, and needs a 3'-single-stranded DNA tail longer than 10 nucleotides to open the substrate. However, it was also able to unwind a blunt-ended duplex DNA with a "bubble" of 25 nucleotides in the middle, as previously observed for WRN and BLM. We show that only short DNA duplexes (<30 bp) can be unwound by RECQ1 alone, but the addition of human replication protein A (hRPA) increases the processivity of the enzyme (>100 bp). Our studies done with Escherichia coli single-strand binding protein (SSB) indicate that the helicase activity of RECQ1 is specifically stimulated by hRPA. This finding suggests that RECQ1 and hRPA may interact also in vivo and function together in DNA metabolism. Comparison of the present results with previous studies on WRN and BLM provides novel insight into the role of the N- and C-terminal domains of these helicases in determining their substrate specificity and in their interaction with hRPA.