Physiology and global gene expression of a Corynebacterium glutamicum ΔF(1)F(O)-ATP synthase mutant devoid of oxidative phosphorylation.

A mutant of Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 with a deletion of the atpBEFHAGDC genes encoding F(1)F(O)-ATP synthase was characterized. Whereas no growth was observed with acetate as sole carbon source, the ΔF(1)F(O) mutant reached 47% of the growth rate and 65% of the biomass of the wild type during shake-flask cultivation in glucose minimal medium. Initially, the mutant strain showed a strongly increased glucose uptake rate accompanied by a high oxygen consumption rate and pyruvate secretion into the medium. When oxygen became limiting, the glucose consumption rate was reduced below that of the wild type and pyruvate was consumed again. The ΔF(1)F(O) mutant had increased levels of b- and d-type cytochromes and a significantly increased proton motive force. Transcription of genes involved in central carbon metabolism was essentially unchanged, whereas genes for cytochrome bd oxidase, pyruvate:quinone oxidoreductase, oxidative stress response, and others showed increased mRNA levels. On the other hand, genes for amino acid biosynthesis and ribosomal proteins as well as many genes involved in transport displayed decreased mRNA levels. Several of the transcriptional changes were reflected at the protein level, but there were also discrepancies between the mRNA and protein levels suggesting some kind of posttranscriptional regulation. The results prove for the first time that F(1)F(O)-ATP synthase and oxidative phosphorylation are in general not essential for growth of C. glutamicum.

Impact of improved potassium accumulation on pH homeostasis, membrane potential adjustment and survival of Corynebacterium glutamicum.

Metal ion uptake is crucial for all living cells and an essential part of cellular bioenergetic homeostasis. In this study the uptake and the impact of the most abundant internal cation, potassium, were investigated in Actinobacteria, a group of high G+C Gram-positives with a number of prominent biotechnologically and medically important members. Genome analyses revealed a variety of different potassium uptake systems in this monophyletic group ranging from potassium channels common in virtually all Actinobacteria to different active carriers that were present predominantly in pathogenic members able to cope with various stress conditions. By applying Corynebacterium glutamicum as model system we provide experimental evidence that under optimal conditions a potassium channel is sufficient in bacteria for the maintenance of internal pH and membrane potential ensuring survival of cells under stress conditions. Under potassium limitation, however, viability of C. glutamicum was increased under acidic stress or during desiccation when a functional KtrAB potassium transporter from the pathogen Corynebacterium jeikeium was heterologously expressed. We provide experimental evidence that the KtrAB mediated enhanced potassium accumulation improved maintenance of internal pH and membrane potential. The results indicate that the occurrence of active potassium transport systems correlates with an improved potassium-dependent bioenergetic homeostasis and survival of bacterial cells under stress conditions.

Osmotic stress response in C. glutamicum: impact of channel- and transporter-mediated potassium accumulation.

Potassium accumulation is an essential aspect of bacterial response to diverse stress situations; consequently its uptake plays a pivotal role. Here, we show that the Gram-positive soil bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum which is employed for the large-scale industrial production of amino acids requires potassium under conditions of ionic and non-ionic osmotic stress. Besides the accumulation of high concentrations of potassium contributing significantly to the osmotic potential of the cytoplasm, we demonstrate that glutamate is not the counter ion for potassium under these conditions. Interestingly, potassium is required for the activation of osmotic stress-dependent expression of the genes betP and proP. The Kup-type potassium transport system which is present in C. glutamicum in addition to the potassium channel CglK does not contribute to potassium uptake at conditions of hyperosmotic stress. Furthermore, we established a secondary carrier of the KtrAB type from C. jeikeium in C. glutamicum thus providing an experimental comparison of channel- and carrier-mediated potassium uptake under osmotic stress. While at low potassium availability, the presence of the KtrAB transporter improves both potassium accumulation and growth of C. glutamicum upon osmotic stress, at proper potassium supply, the channel CglK is sufficient.

Potassium transport in corynebacterium glutamicum is facilitated by the putative channel protein CglK, which is essential for pH homeostasis and growth at acidic pH.

We studied the requirement for potassium and for potassium transport activity for the biotechnologically important bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum, which is used for large-scale production of amino acids. Different from many other bacteria, at alkaline or neutral pH, C. glutamicum is able to grow without the addition of potassium, resulting in very low cytoplasmic potassium concentrations. In contrast, at acidic pH, the ability for growth was found to depend on the presence of K+. For the first time, we provide experimental evidence that a potential potassium channel (CglK) acts as the major potassium uptake system in a bacterium and proved CglK's function directly in its natural membrane environment. A full-length CglK protein and a separate soluble protein harboring the RCK domain can be translated from the cglK gene, and both are essential for full CglK functionality. As a reason for potassium-dependent growth limitation at acidic pH, we identified the impaired capacity for internal pH homeostasis, which depends on the availability and internal accumulation of potassium. Potassium uptake via CglK was found to be relevant for major physiological processes, like the activity of the respiratory chain, and to be crucial for maintenance of the internal pH, as well as for the adjustment of the membrane potential in C. glutamicum.

Functional genomics of pH homeostasis in Corynebacterium glutamicum revealed novel links between pH response, oxidative stress, iron homeostasis and methionine synthesis.

BACKGROUND: The maintenance of internal pH in bacterial cells is challenged by natural stress conditions, during host infection or in biotechnological production processes. Comprehensive transcriptomic and proteomic analyses has been conducted in several bacterial model systems, yet questions remain as to the mechanisms of pH homeostasis. RESULTS: Here we present the comprehensive analysis of pH homeostasis in C. glutamicum, a bacterium of industrial importance. At pH values between 6 and 9 effective maintenance of the internal pH at 7.5 +/- 0.5 pH units was found. By DNA microarray analyses differential mRNA patterns were identified. The expression profiles were validated and extended by 1D-LC-ESI-MS/MS based quantification of soluble and membrane proteins. Regulators involved were identified and thereby participation of numerous signaling modules in pH response was found. The functional analysis revealed for the first time the occurrence of oxidative stress in C. glutamicum cells at neutral and low pH conditions accompanied by activation of the iron starvation response. Intracellular metabolite pool analysis unraveled inhibition of the TCA and other pathways at low pH. Methionine and cysteine synthesis were found to be activated via the McbR regulator, cysteine accumulation was observed and addition of cysteine was shown to be toxic under acidic conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Novel limitations for C. glutamicum at non-optimal pH values were identified by a comprehensive analysis on the level of the transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome indicating a functional link between pH acclimatization, oxidative stress, iron homeostasis, and metabolic alterations. The results offer new insights into bacterial stress physiology and new starting points for bacterial strain design or pathogen defense.