Effects of colostrum instead of formula feeding for the first 2 days postnatum on whole-body energy metabolism and its endocrine control in neonatal calves.

Colostrum provides high amounts of nutritive and non-nutritive substrates, which are essential for calf nutrition and passive immunization. Colostral growth factors and hormones have beneficial effects on postnatal maturation and may affect substrate utilization and energy expenditure in neonatal calves. We tested the hypothesis that energy metabolism and its endocrine regulation differ during the first 10 d of life in calves fed either colostrum or a milk-based formula with a similar nutrient composition to colostrum, but largely depleted of bioactive substances, for the first 2 d postnatum. Male Holstein calves (n = 18) were fed either pooled colostrum (COL; n = 9) or a milk-based formula (FOR; n = 9) for the first 2 d of life. From d 3 on, all calves received same milk replacer. On d 2 and 7 of life, calves were placed in a respiration chamber for indirect calorimetric measurements to calculate heat production, fat (FOX) and carbohydrate oxidation (COX), as well as respiratory quotient. Blood was sampled on d 1 before first colostrum intake and on d 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10 before morning feeding, to measure plasma concentrations of immunoglobulins, metabolites, and hormones. Additional postprandial blood samples were taken on d 1 and 9 at 30, 60, 120, 240, and 420 min after milk feeding. Liver samples were collected on d 10 of life to determine gene expression related to energy metabolism. Formula-fed calves showed lower plasma concentrations of total protein, immunoglobulins, haptoglobin, leptin, adiponectin, and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding protein (IGFBP)-4 during the whole study but temporarily higher plasma concentrations of urea, insulin, glucagon, triglyceride, and cholesterol on the first day after feeding, compared with concentrations in COL. The temporary increase in glucagon, triglyceride, and cholesterol on d 1 reversed on d 2 or 3, showing higher concentrations in COL than in FOR calves. In FOR, IGF-I, IGFBP-2, and IGFBP-3 were lower on d 3 than in COL. Interestingly, FOR calves had higher heat production during respiratory measurements on d 2 and higher body temperature on d 2, 3, and 5 than those of COL. The hepatic mRNA abundance of cytosolic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase was higher in FOR than in COL. Our results indicate that first milk feeding after birth influenced whole-body energy expenditure but not FOX and COX in neonatal calves, and the absorption of colostral leptin and adiponectin might affect insulin sensitivity on d 1 of life.

Challenges and opportunities for quantifying roots and rhizosphere interactions through imaging and image analysis.

The morphology of roots and root systems influences the efficiency by which plants acquire nutrients and water, anchor themselves and provide stability to the surrounding soil. Plant genotype and the biotic and abiotic environment significantly influence root morphology, growth and ultimately crop yield. The challenge for researchers interested in phenotyping root systems is, therefore, not just to measure roots and link their phenotype to the plant genotype, but also to understand how the growth of roots is influenced by their environment. This review discusses progress in quantifying root system parameters (e.g. in terms of size, shape and dynamics) using imaging and image analysis technologies and also discusses their potential for providing a better understanding of root:soil interactions. Significant progress has been made in image acquisition techniques, however trade-offs exist between sample throughput, sample size, image resolution and information gained. All of these factors impact on downstream image analysis processes. While there have been significant advances in computation power, limitations still exist in statistical processes involved in image analysis. Utilizing and combining different imaging systems, integrating measurements and image analysis where possible, and amalgamating data will allow researchers to gain a better understanding of root:soil interactions.

Research Note: Irritating flashing light or poultry-friendly lighting-are flicker frequencies of LED luminaires a potential stress factor in the husbandry of male fattening turkeys?

Conventional fluorescent tubes are increasingly being replaced with innovative light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for lighting poultry houses. However, little is known about whether the flicker frequencies of LED luminaires are potential stressors in poultry husbandry. The term "light flicker" describes the fluctuations in the brightness of an electrically operated light source caused by the design and/or control of the light source. In this context, the critical flicker frequency (CFF) characterizes the frequency at which a sequence of light flashes is perceived as continuous light. It is known that CFF in birds is higher than that in humans and that light flicker can affect behavioral patterns and stress levels in several bird species. As there is a lack of knowledge about the impact of flicker frequency on fattening turkeys, this study aimed to investigate the effects of flicker frequency on the behavior, performance, and stress response in male turkeys. In 3 trials, a total of 1,646 male day-old turkey poults of the strain B.U.T. 6 with intact beaks were reared for 20 wk in 12 barn compartments of 18 m² each. Each barn compartment was illuminated using 2 full-spectrum LED lamps. Flicker frequencies of 165 Hz, 500 Hz, and 16 kHz were set in the luminaires to illuminate the compartments. Analyses of feather corticosterone concentration were performed on fully grown third-generation primaries (P 3) of 5 turkeys from each compartment. No significant differences were found in the development of live weight, feed consumption, or prevalence of injured or killed turkeys by conspecifics reared under the above flicker frequencies. The flicker frequencies also did not significantly influence feather corticosterone concentrations in the primaries of the turkeys. In conclusion, the present results indicate that flicker frequencies of 165 Hz or higher have no detrimental effect on growth performance, injurious pecking, or endocrine stress response in male turkeys and, thus, may be suitable for use as animal-friendly lighting.

Percolation-based risk index for pathogen invasion: application to soilborne disease in propagation systems.

Propagation systems for seedling growth play a major role in agriculture, and in notable cases (such as organic systems), are under constant threat from soil and seedborne fungal plant pathogens such as Rhizoctonia solani or Pythium spp. Yet, to date little is known that links the risk of disease invasion to the host density, which is an agronomic characteristic that can be readily controlled. We introduce here, for the first time in an agronomic system, a percolation framework to analyze the link. We set up an experiment to study the spread of the ubiquitous fungus R. solani in replicated propagation systems with different planting densities, and fit a percolation-based epidemiological model to the data using Bayesian inference methods. The estimated probability of pathogen transmission between infected and susceptible plants is used to calculate the risk of invasion. By comparing the transmission probability and the risk values obtained for different planting densities, we are able to give evidence of a nonlinear relationship between disease invasion and the inter-plant spacing, hence to demonstrate the existence of a spatial threshold for epidemic invasion. The implications and potential use of our methods for the evaluation of disease control strategies are discussed.

Hepatic gene expression involved in glucose and lipid metabolism in transition cows: effects of fat mobilization during early lactation in relation to milk performance and metabolic changes.

Insufficient feed intake during early lactation results in elevated body fat mobilization to meet energy demands for milk production. Hepatic energy metabolism is involved by increasing endogenous glucose production and hepatic glucose output for milk synthesis and by adaptation of postcalving fuel oxidation. Given that cows differ in their degree of fat mobilization around parturition, indicated by variable total liver fat concentration (LFC), the study investigated the influence of peripartum fat mobilization on hepatic gene expression involved in gluconeogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, ketogenesis, and cholesterol synthesis, as well as transcriptional factors referring to energy metabolism. German Holstein cows were grouped according to mean total LFC on d 1, 14, and 28 after parturition as low [<200mg of total fat/g of dry matter (DM); n=10], medium (200-300 mg of total fat/g of DM; n=10), and high (>300 mg of total fat/g of DM; n=7), indicating fat mobilization during early lactation. Cows were fed total mixed rations ad libitum and held under equal conditions. Liver biopsies were taken at d 56 and 15 before and d 1, 14, 28, and 49 after parturition to measure mRNA abundances of pyruvate carboxylase (PC); phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase; glucose-6-phosphatase; propionyl-coenzyme A (CoA) carboxylase α; carnitine palmitoyl-transferase 1A (CPT1A); acyl-CoA synthetase, long chain 1 (ASCL1); acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, very long chain; 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase 1 and 2; sterol regulatory element-binding factor 1; and peroxisome proliferator-activated factor α. Total LFC postpartum differed greatly among cows, and the mRNA abundance of most enzymes and transcription factors changed with time during the experimental period. Abundance of PC mRNA increased at parturition to a greater extent in high- and medium-LFC groups than in the low-LFC group. Significant LFC × time interactions for ACSL1 and CPT1A during the experimental period indicated variable gene expression depending on LFC after parturition. Correlations between hepatic gene expression and performance data and plasma concentrations of metabolites and hormones showed time-specific relations during the transition period. Elevated body fat mobilization during early lactation affected gene expression involved in gluconeogenesis to a greater extent than gene expression involved in lipid metabolism, indicating the dependence of hepatic glucose metabolism on hepatic lipid status and fat mobilization during early lactation.

Variation in fat mobilization during early lactation differently affects feed intake, body condition, and lipid and glucose metabolism in high-yielding dairy cows.

Fat mobilization to meet energy requirements during early lactation is inevitable because of insufficient feed intake, but differs greatly among high-yielding dairy cows. Therefore, we studied milk production, feed intake, and body condition as well as metabolic and endocrine changes in high-yielding dairy cows to identify variable strategies in metabolic and endocrine adaptation to overcome postpartum metabolic load attributable to milk production. Cows used in this study varied in fat mobilization around calving, as classified by mean total liver fat concentrations (LFC) postpartum. German Holstein cows (n=27) were studied from dry off until d 63 postpartum in their third lactation. All cows were fed the same total mixed rations ad libitum during the dry period and lactation. Plasma concentrations of metabolites and hormones were measured in blood samples taken at d 56, 28, 15, and 5 before expected calving and at d 1 and once weekly up to d 63 postpartum. Liver biopsies were taken on d 56 and 15 before calving, and on d 1, 14, 28, and 49 postpartum to measure LFC and glycogen concentrations. Cows were grouped accordingly to mean total LFC on d 1, 14, and 28 in high, medium, and low fat-mobilizing cows. Mean LFC (±SEM) differed among groups and were 351±14, 250±10, and 159±9 mg/g of dry matter for high, medium, and low fat-mobilizing cows, respectively, whereas hepatic glycogen concentrations postpartum were the highest in low fat-mobilizing cows. Cows in the low group showed the highest dry matter intake and the least negative energy balance postpartum, but energy-corrected milk yield was similar among groups. The decrease in body weight postpartum was greatest in high fat-mobilizing cows, but the decrease in backfat thickness was greatest in medium fat-mobilizing cows. Plasma concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids and ß-hydroxybutyrate were highest around calving in high fat-mobilizing cows. Plasma triglycerides were highest in the medium group and plasma cholesterol concentrations were lowest in the high group at calving. During early lactation, the decrease in plasma glucose concentrations was greatest in the high group, and plasma insulin concentrations postpartum were highest in the low group. The revised quantitative insulin sensitivity check index values decreased during the transition period and postpartum, and were highest in the medium group. Plasma cortisol concentrations during the transition period and postpartum period and plasma leptin concentrations were highest in the medium group. In conclusion, cows adapted differently to the metabolic load and used variable strategies for homeorhetic regulation of milk production. Differences in fat mobilization were part of these strategies and contributed to the individual adaptation of energy metabolism to milk production.

Are biters sick? Health status of tail biters in comparison to control pigs.

BACKGROUND: Tail biting is a multifactorial problem. As the health status is one of the factors commonly linked to tail biting, this study focuses on the health of identified biters. 30 (obsessive) biters are compared to 30 control animals by clinical and pathological examination as well as blood and cerebrospinal fluid samples. In that way, altogether 174 variables are compared between the groups. Moreover, connections between the variables are analysed. RESULTS: In the clinical examination, 6 biters, but only 2 controls (P = 0.019) were noticeably agitated in the evaluation of general behaviour, while 8 controls were noticeably calmer (2 biters, P = 0.02). Biters had a lower body weight (P = 0.0007) and 13 biters had overlong bristles (4 controls, P = 0.008). In the pathological examination, 5 biters, but none of the controls had a hyperceratosis or inflammation of the pars proventricularis of the stomach (P = 0.018). However, 7 controls and only 3 biters were affected by gut inflammation (P = 0.03). In the blood sample, protein and albumin levels were below normal range for biters (protein: 51.6 g/l, albumin: 25.4 g/l), but not for controls (protein: 53.7 g/l, albumin: 27.4 g/l), (protein: P = 0.05, albumin: P = 0.02). Moreover, 14 biters, but only 8 controls had poikilocytosis (P = 0.05). Although not statistically different between groups, many animals (36/60) were affected by hypoproteinemia and hyponatremia as well as by hypokalemia (53/60) and almost all animals (58/60) had hypomagnesemia. For hypomagnesemia, significant connections with variables linked to tail damage and ear necrosis were detected (rs/V/ρ ≥ 0.4, P ≤ 0.05). CONCLUSION: The results suggest that behavioural tests might be helpful in identifying biters. Moreover, cornification and inflammation of the pars proventricularis is linked to becoming a biter. Furthermore, the results highlight the need for appropriate and adjusted nutrient and mineral supply, especially with regard to magnesium.

Prominent effect of soil network heterogeneity on microbial invasion.

Using a network representation for real soil samples and mathematical models for microbial spread, we show that the structural heterogeneity of the soil habitat may have a very significant influence on the size of microbial invasions of the soil pore space. In particular, neglecting the soil structural heterogeneity may lead to a substantial underestimation of microbial invasion. Such effects are explained in terms of a crucial interplay between heterogeneity in microbial spread and heterogeneity in the topology of soil networks. The main influence of network topology on invasion is linked to the existence of long channels in soil networks that may act as bridges for transmission of microorganisms between distant parts of soil.

The age of hair matters - the incorporation of cortisol by external contamination is enhanced in distal hair segments of pigs and cattle.

Hair cortisol concentration (HCC) is used as an indicator of long-term stress or pathologies in humans and increasingly in animals. Although the main mechanism for the incorporation of cortisol into the hair shaft is by diffusion from blood, cortisol may also be incorporated from external sources by contamination of the hair surface. In farm animals under conventional husbandry conditions and trapped animals, contamination of hair with cortisol-containing body fluids, especially with urine, was shown to be a considerable confounding factor when studying HCCs. We recently found that cattle and pigs exhibit elevated HCCs in distal hair segments and assume that the incorporation of external cortisol is facilitated in these older hair segments. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of urine contamination on HCC in different hair segments of pigs and cattle, and to determine whether different cleaning protocols can prevent contamination effects. In an in vivo experiment in pigs (n = 18) and an in vitro experiment in cattle (n = 12), hairs were repeatedly contaminated with urine of the respective species and then shaved or cut in segments. Cortisol concentrations in hair segments were analysed by enzyme immunoassay after washing with isopropanol and extraction with methanol. Results were compared with HCCs in untreated hairs or hairs treated with water. Moreover, additional bovine hair samples contaminated with urine were subjected to two further cleaning procedures. Contamination with urine generally increased HCCs, and it was demonstrated for the first time that this effect is more pronounced in distal compared to proximal hair segments in both species. The immersion of bovine hair in vitro in water caused a washout of cortisol, which was also more pronounced in distal hair segments. In general, the different cleaning protocols for cattle hair did not prevent contamination effects, so we assume that external cortisol not only adheres but is incorporated into the hair shaft. Structural damage of older, distal hair segments may facilitate permeability of the hair matrix and diffusion of cortisol from and into aqueous solutions. Thus, the validity of HCC as a marker of stress is compromised in animals where soiling of hair with body fluids is a risk factor. Therefore, hair samples should be collected from clean body regions and, if possible, using proximal hair segments.

Employers' attitude, intention, skills and barriers in relation to employment of vulnerable workers.

BACKGROUND: Little is known why some organizations employ vulnerable workers and others do not. OBJECTIVE: To explore the relationships between the attitude, intention, skills and barriers of employers and employment of vulnerable workers. METHODS: We included 5,601 inclusive organizations (≥1% of employees had a disability, was long-term unemployed or a school dropout) and 6,236 non-inclusive organizations of the Netherlands Employers Work Survey 2014-2019. We operationalized employer factors based on the Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction as attitude (negative impact), intention (mission statement regarding social inclusion), skills (human resources policies and practices), and barriers (economic conditions and type of work). We used multivariate-adjusted logistic regression models. RESULTS: Compared to non-inclusive organizations, inclusive organizations had a more negative attitude (OR:0.81) and a stronger intention to employ vulnerable workers (OR:6.09). Regarding skills, inclusive organizations had more inclusive human resources practices (OR:4.83) and initiated more supporting human resources actions (OR:4.45). Also, they adapted more work conditions towards the needs of employees (OR:1.52), negotiated about work times and absenteeism (OR:1.49), and had general human resources practices on, for example, employability (OR:1.78). Inclusive organizations had less barriers reflected by better financial results (OR:1.32), more employment opportunities (OR:1.33) and more appropriate work tasks (OR:1.40). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, inclusive organizations reported more positive results on the employer factors of the Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction, except for a more negative attitude. The more negative attitude might reflect a more realistic view on the efforts to employ vulnerable groups, and suggests that other unmeasured emotions and beliefs are more positive.

Research Note: It's not just stress-fecal contamination of plumage may affect feather corticosterone concentration.

The feather corticosterone concentration (fCORT) is increasingly used to assess long-term stress in birds as this indicator provides the potential to retrospectively evaluate the adrenocortical activity of a bird during the growth period of a feather over several weeks in one sample. However, there is still a lack of knowledge concerning external factors which can potentially influence fCORT in birds. The aim of the present study was to determine whether fCORT in laying hens is affected by previous fecal contamination of the plumage. Fully grown primaries 5 (P5s) of laying hens (n = 40) were used for the study. To test the effects of fecal contamination on fCORT, freshly defecated droppings from laying hens were collected and mixed manually. In order to simulate practical and at the same time standardized contamination, the upper surface of the previously determined middle third of the right P5 of each hen then was evenly coated with the paste prepared from fresh feces. The treated feathers were stored for 24 h protected from light at room temperature under a film cover to prevent evaporation. Thereafter, the applied layer of excreta was removed manually. Contralateral P5s of the same individuals were stored under identical conditions and served as controls. Both treatment and control feathers were washed in an aqueous soap solution, rinsed several times in pure water and air-dried subsequently. After pulverization and methanolic extraction, fCORT was analyzed by ELISA. The mean fCORT of treatment P5s (reference 'feather length': 12.88 ± 3.16 pg/mm; reference 'feather weight': 7.81 pg/mg ± 1.86 pg/mg) were significantly higher (P < 0.001) than those of control P5s (reference 'feather length': 9.76 ± 2.42 pg/mm; reference 'feather weight': 5.93 ± 1.44 pg/mg). Our results show that previous contamination with excreta can increase fCORT, which was detectable even after a washing procedure prior to analysis. In conclusion, fecal contamination of feathers is a significant influencing factor that has to be considered when applying fCORT measurements.

The dark side of white hair? Artificial light irradiation reduces cortisol concentrations in white but not black hairs of cattle and pigs.

Analysing hair cortisol concentrations (HCCs) is a minimally invasive way to retrospectively assess long-term stress, and its application in studies of animal welfare and stress has attracted considerable interest. However, not only stress-related effects but also hair-specific characteristics and external influences can affect HCCs and interfere with the interpretation of results. Thus, it was the aim of this study to investigate the impact of daylight and UV irradiation on cortisol concentrations in the hairs of pigs and cattle. We also examined whether a potential irradiation effect on HCCs depended on the colour of the hair. For this purpose, black and white hair samples from 18 Saddleback pigs and 18 Holstein Friesian cattle were exposed to artificial light (both visible and UV) and compared with control hair samples from the same animals kept in the dark. Exposure to artificial light significantly decreased HCCs in both pigs (P < 0.05) and cattle (P < 0.001), and hair colour had an influence on HCCs, with black hair showing higher cortisol levels than white hair (cattle: P < 0.001, pigs: P = 0.07). The interaction between light exposure and hair colour was significant in both pigs (P < 0.01) and cattle (P < 0.001), so light exposure reduced HCCs in porcine white hair but not black hair. In cattle, light-exposed white hair exhibited lower hair cortisol levels than control white hair or black hair. These results demonstrate that artificial light irradiation degrades hair cortisol or favours its elimination by structural changes of the hair matrix. However, this effect was only detectable in white hair, indicating that the melanin pigments in black hair absorbed radiation, thereby reducing the effects of photodegradation. Compared with other known influencing factors on HCCs, such as age and body region, the influence of light irradiation was relatively low in this in vitro experiment. However, further studies should investigate this influence under real-life animal conditions, such as outdoor and indoor housing.

Research Note: A sip of stress. Effects of corticosterone supplementation in drinking water on feather corticosterone concentrations in layer pullets.

The measurement of feather corticosterone concentrations (fCORT) is a comparatively new method for the evaluation of stress in wild and captive birds and may be a useful indicator in animal welfare research. The aim of this study was to assess the suitability of fCORT as an indicator of stress, and for this purpose a prolonged stress period was experimentally simulated by oral intake of corticosterone via drinking water and corticosterone concentrations were analyzed in feathers grown during this period. Layer pullets of both a control group (n = 20) and a CORT group (n = 20) were offered drinking water ad libitum throughout the entire experimental phase. The drinking water of the CORT group was supplemented with corticosterone at a concentration of 20 mg/l from the 64th to the 114th day of life. The vaned parts of the primaries 5 (P5s) were clipped on d 114 and fCORT was analyzed by ELISA after extraction. Body weights increased from day 64 until d 114 in both groups, however, at the end of the experiment, mean body mass in the CORT group was significantly lower than in the control group (P < 0.001). Pullets of the CORT group also showed shorter and lighter P5s as well as a retarded molt of the primaries. The supplementation of drinking water with corticosterone increased the average fCORT in the P5s of the CORT pullets compared with the control group (median: 110.3 pg/mm [interquartile range (IQR): 47.2] vs. 10.0 pg/mm [IQR: 2.5], P < 0.001). The results show that experimentally increased systemic corticosterone concentrations over a period of seven weeks in layer pullets are reflected in corticosterone concentrations of feathers grown during that time. This indicates that the measurement of fCORT may be a useful and minimally invasive tool for the evaluation of long-term stress in chicken and provides the basis for further investigations on its use in animal welfare research.

Development of a defined compost system for the study of plant-microbe interactions.

Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria can improve plant health by providing enhanced nutrition, disease suppression and abiotic stress resistance, and have potential to contribute to sustainable agriculture. We have developed a sphagnum peat-based compost platform for investigating plant-microbe interactions. The chemical, physical and biological status of the system can be manipulated to understand the relative importance of these factors for plant health, demonstrated using three case studies: 1. Nutrient depleted compost retained its structure, but plants grown in this medium were severely stunted in growth due to removal of essential soluble nutrients - particularly, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Compost nutrient status was replenished with the addition of selected soluble nutrients, validated by plant biomass; 2. When comparing milled and unmilled compost, we found nutrient status to be more important than matrix structure for plant growth; 3. In compost deficient in soluble P, supplemented with an insoluble inorganic form of P (Ca3(PO4)2), application of a phosphate solubilising Pseudomonas strain to plant roots provides a significant growth boost when compared with a Pseudomonas strain incapable of solubilising Ca3(PO4)2. Our findings show that the compost system can be manipulated to impose biotic and abiotic stresses for testing how microbial inoculants influence plant growth.

A fungal growth model fitted to carbon-limited dynamics of Rhizoctonia solani.

Here, a quasi-steady-state approximation was used to simplify a mathematical model for fungal growth in carbon-limiting systems, and this was fitted to growth dynamics of the soil-borne plant pathogen and saprotroph Rhizoctonia solani. The model identified a criterion for invasion into carbon-limited environments with two characteristics driving fungal growth, namely the carbon decomposition rate and a measure of carbon use efficiency. The dynamics of fungal spread through a population of sites with either low (0.0074 mg) or high (0.016 mg) carbon content were well described by the simplified model with faster colonization for the carbon-rich environment. Rhizoctonia solani responded to a lower carbon availability by increasing the carbon use efficiency and the carbon decomposition rate following colonization. The results are discussed in relation to fungal invasion thresholds in terms of carbon nutrition.

Prenatal stress, fetal imprinting and immunity.

A comprehensive number of epidemiological and animal studies suggests that prenatal and early life events are important determinants for disorders later in life. Among them, prenatal stress (i.e. stress experienced by the pregnant mother with impact on the fetal ontogeny) has programming effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, brain neurotransmitter systems and cognitive abilities of the offspring. This review focuses on the impact of maternal stress during gestation on the immune function in the offspring. It compares results from different animal species and highlights potential mechanisms for the immune effects of prenatal stress, including maternal glucocorticoids and placental functions. The existence of possible windows of increased vulnerability of the immune system to prenatal stress during gestation is discussed. Several gaps in the present knowledge are pointed out, especially concerning the time when prenatal stress effects are expressed during postnatal life, why this expression is delayed after birth and whether prenatal stress predisposes to immune-related pathologies later in life.

Repeated administrations of adrenocorticotropic hormone during late gestation in pigs: maternal cortisol response and effects on fetal HPA axis and brain neurotransmitter systems.

The present study examined the effects of repeated adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) administrations to sows during late gestation on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis and brain neurotransmitter systems in their fetuses. ACTH (100 IU per animal, Synacthen Depot, n=6) or saline (n=5) was administered intramuscularly to sows every 2nd day from gestational day (GD) 85 to GD 101. Blood samples were taken from sows repeatedly within 12h after ACTH application on GD 85 and GD 101. On GD 105, fetuses were recovered under general anaesthesia for the collection of blood and brain samples. Plasma cortisol concentrations in sows increased significantly within 2h after ACTH application and returned to control levels after 10h post-application, showing a similar response at the beginning and at the end of the 16-day stimulation period. On GD 101, a significant increase of plasma glucose and insulin concentrations was found in sows after administration of ACTH and after a following feeding time. Number and body weight of fetuses were not affected by the maternal ACTH treatment. Cortisol concentrations in the umbilical vein were significantly decreased in fetuses from ACTH sows and a similar trend was observed in the umbilical artery and in the vena cava cranialis. Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) binding in hippocampus and hypothalamus did not differ between treatments. However, in hippocampus, serotonergic activity was increased in fetuses from ACTH-treated mothers as shown by significantly elevated 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) levels. In conclusion, repeated administrations of ACTH during late gestation resulted in a reproducible cortisol response of sows and reduced cortisol concentrations in the fetal umbilical vein after the treatment period. Although the number of sows used in this experiment was low and differences between treatments were limited these findings indicate that excessive glucocorticoid exposure during gestation alters serotonergic activity in hippocampus of fetuses and may affect the emotional reactivity later in life.

[Changes in the concentration of noradrenaline and adrenaline before and after castration of piglets with and without isoflurane anesthesia]. / Verlauf der Noradrenalin- und Adrenalinkonzentrationen vor und nach der Kastration von Saugferkeln mit und ohne Isofluran-Narkose.

Since the amendment of the animal welfare law in Germany in April 2006, castration of piglets without anesthesia is only allowed in the first seven days of life. However, neonates are capable of feeling pain and react more sensitive to pain than adults. Accordingly we expect that castration without anesthesia will be unaccepted in Germany in the future as castration without anesthesia will be forbidden in Switzerland from 2009 on. Denmark and The Netherlands strive for an embargo of the castration without anesthesia and Norway is already asking for an elimination of pain during castration. In Switzerland castration under isoflurane-anesthesia is considered to be a good alternative for the castration without anesthesia. Whether isoflurane-anesthesia is able to reduce stress caused by castration adequately or anesthesia, especially anesthetization that often provokes defensive reaction, is stress for the animal itself was tested in the following investigation. To get an objective statement about the stress of the animals, concentrations of epinephrine and norepinephrine were detected before and immediately after castration/fixation with or without anesthesia. Five day old, healthy animals were divided into four groups. Animals of group A (n = 10) were only fixed without anesthesia, animals of group B (n = 10) were fixed and castrated without anesthesia. In group C (n = 10) the animals were only fixed under anesthesia and the animals of group D (n = 11) were fixed and castrated under anesthesia. Norepinephrine-concentrations and epinephrine-concentrations did rise significantly in all piglets handled without anesthesia (group A and B) independently if castrated or only handled. The values of these animals were significantly higher than the values of the anesthetized animals after fixation/castration (group C and D). In contrast the norepinephrine-concentrations and the epinephrine-concentrations of all anesthetized animals (group C and D) were significantly lower after castration than the concentrations before castration. The catecholamine peak did not differ significantly between the groups of anesthetized animals. The significant increase of the catecholamines of the non-anesthetized animals can be explained by the stress caused by fixation and/or castration without anesthesia. Because of the anesthesia the catecholamine-concentration was reduced considerably during the fixation and/or castration. The results show that fixation and/or castration under anesthesia causes no stress for the piglets.

Moderate high or low maternal protein diets change gene expression but not the phenotype of skeletal muscle from porcine fetuses.

The aim of our study was to characterize the immediate phenotypic and adaptive regulatory responses of fetuses to different in utero conditions reflecting inadequate maternal protein supply during gestation. The gilts fed high- (250% above control) or low- (50% under control) protein diets isoenergetically adjusted at the expense of carbohydrates from the day of insemination until the fetuses were collected at day 64 or 94 of gestation. We analyzed body composition, histomorphology, biochemistry, and messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of fetal skeletal muscle. Both diets had only marginal effects on body composition and muscular cellularity of fetuses including an unchanged total number of myofibers. However, mRNA expression of myogenic regulatory factors (MYOG, MRF4, P ≤ 0.1), IGF system (IGF1, IGF1R, P ≤ 0.05) and myostatin antagonist FST (P = 0.6, in males only) was reduced in the fetal muscle exposed to a maternal low-protein diet. As a result of excess protein, MYOD, MYOG, IGF1R, and IGFBP5 mRNA expression (P ≤ 0.05) was upregulated in fetal muscle. Differences in muscular mRNA expression indicate in utero regulatory adaptive responses to maternal diet. Modulation of gene expression immediately contributes to the maintenance of an appropriate fetal phenotype that would be similar to that observed in the control fetuses. Moreover, we suggest that the modified gene expression in fetal skeletal muscle can be viewed as the origin of developmental muscular plasticity involved in the concept of fetal programming.

Explaining differences in attitude toward adjuvant chemotherapy between experienced and inexperienced breast cancer patients.

PURPOSE: Previous studies have shown that patients who have experienced adjuvant chemotherapy (experienced patients) have a more favorable attitude towards chemotherapy than those who have not (inexperienced patients). However, not much is known about the reasons underlying this difference. According to the Theory of Planned Behavior, the attitude towards a particular behavior (eg, accepting chemotherapy) is based on beliefs about the likelihood of outcomes of the behavior and the evaluations of these outcomes. We used this theory to explore in what way the beliefs of experienced patients differed from those of inexperienced patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was undertaken among 719 patients who had been treated for early-stage breast cancer between 1998 and 2003. Patients were asked, first, to indicate the likelihood of six positive and six negative outcomes of undergoing chemotherapy and, second, to give their evaluation of these outcomes. RESULTS: Four hundred forty-six women filled in the questionnaire (response rate, 62%). As hypothesized, experienced patients (ie, patients who had been treated with adjuvant chemotherapy as part of their primary treatment plan) had a more positive attitude towards chemotherapy. Experienced patients provided higher likelihood estimates of treatment advantages, such as life prolongation. In addition, they evaluated the positive outcomes of chemotherapy more favorably. With regard to the negative outcomes of chemotherapy, few differences were observed between treatment groups. CONCLUSION: Experienced patients have more confidence in the positive outcomes of chemotherapy than inexperienced patients. This might be the result of a cognitive mechanism to justify the way in which patients were treated.