Electrochemical Bottom-Up Synthesis of Chiral Carbon Dots from L-Proline and Their Application as Nano-Organocatalysts in a Stereoselective Aldol Reaction.

Chirality is undoubtedly a fundamental property of nature since the different interactions of optically active molecules in a chiral environment are essential for numerous applications. Thus, in the field of asymmetric synthesis, the search for efficient, sustainable, cost-effective and recyclable chiral catalysts is still the main challenge in organic chemistry. The field of carbon dots (CDs) has experienced tremendous development in the last 15 years, including their applications as achiral catalysts. Thus, understanding the implications of chirality in CDs chemistry could be of utmost importance to achieving sustainable and biocompatible chiral nanocatalysts. An efficient and cost-effective electrochemical synthetic methodology for the synthesis of L-Proline-based chiral carbon dots (CCDs) and EtOH-derived L-Proline-based chiral carbon dots (CCDs) is herein reported. The electrochemical set-up and reaction conditions have been thoroughly optimised and their effects on CCDs size, photoluminescence, as well as catalytic activity have been investigated. The obtained CCDs have been successfully employed to catalyze an asymmetric aldol reaction, showing excellent results in terms of yield, diastereo- and enantioselectivity. Moreover, the sustainable nature of the CCDs was demonstrated by recycling the catalysts for up to 3 cycles without any loss of reactivity or stereoselectivity.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of a series of iron and copper chelating deferiprone derivatives as new agents active against Candida albicans.

Candida albicans, in specific conditions, is responsible of severe invasive systemic candidiasis that are related to its ability to produce biofilm on biological and artificial surfaces. Many studies reported the role of iron in fungal growth and virulence and the ability of metal chelating agents to interfere with C. albicans metabolism, virulence and biofilm formation. Here we report the activity of 3-hydroxy-1,2-dimethyl-4(1H)-pyridinone (deferiprone) derivatives against C. albicans planktonic cells and biofilm. Some of the studied compounds (2b and 3b) were able to chelate Fe(III) and Cu(II), and showed an interesting activity on planktonic cells (MIC50 of 32 µg/mL and 16 µg/mL respectively) and on biofilm formation (BMIC50 of 32 µg/mL and 16 µg/mL respectively) in cultured ATCC 10,231C. albicans; this activity was reduced, in a concentration dependent way, by the addition of Fe(III) and Cu(II) to the culture media. Furthermore, the most active compound 3b showed a low toxicity on Galleria mellonella larvae.

Salmonella Typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa Respond Differently to the Fe Chelator Deferiprone and to Some Novel Deferiprone Derivatives.

The ability to obtain Fe is critical for pathogens to multiply in their host. For this reason, there is significant interest in the identification of compounds that might interfere with Fe management in bacteria. Here we have tested the response of two Gram-negative pathogens, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (STM) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PAO1), to deferiprone (DFP), a chelating agent already in use for the treatment of thalassemia, and to some DFP derivatives designed to increase its lipophilicity. Our results indicate that DFP effectively inhibits the growth of PAO1, but not STM. Similarly, Fe-dependent genes of the two microorganisms respond differently to this agent. DFP is, however, capable of inhibiting an STM strain unable to synthesize enterochelin, while its effect on PAO1 is not related to the capability to produce siderophores. Using a fluorescent derivative of DFP we have shown that this chelator can penetrate very quickly into PAO1, but not into STM, suggesting that a selective receptor exists in Pseudomonas. Some of the tested derivatives have shown a greater ability to interfere with Fe homeostasis in STM compared to DFP, whereas most, although not all, were less active than DFP against PAO1, possibly due to interference of the added chemical tails with the receptor-mediated recognition process. The results reported in this work indicate that DFP can have different effects on distinct microorganisms, but that it is possible to obtain derivatives with a broader antimicrobial action.

Synthesis and characterization of new D-π-A and A-π-D-π-A type oligothiophene derivatives.

In this work, we present a series of newly synthesized conjugated oligothiophene derivatives, with different numbers of central thiophene units, and different donor/acceptor architectures. Electrochemical and spectroscopic data have also been reported. We used thiophene or bithiophene as central donor core units, 3-octylthiophenes as π-bridge and solubilizing sub-units, and ethyl cyanoacetate or rhodanine moieties as acceptor end groups, in order to get D-π-A and A-π-D-π-A molecular architectures. The length of the synthesized oligothiophenes ranges from three to eight thiophene units, a variety that is sufficient to put in evidence different optical and electrochemical characteristics as well as semiconducting characteristics. Oligothiophene compounds can be regarded not only as models for the study of structure-property relationships relative to polythiophenes, but also they present a large number of applications in the field of organic electronics (i.e.: as donors in bulk-heterojunction solar cells and hole-transporting layer materials in perovskite solar cells, among others).

Electrochemically modified Corey-Fuchs reaction for the synthesis of arylalkynes. The case of 2-(2,2-dibromovinyl)naphthalene.

The electrochemical reduction of 2-(2,2-dibromovinyl)naphthalene in a DMF solution (Pt cathode) yields selectively 2-ethynylnaphthalene or 2-(bromoethynyl)naphthalene in high yields, depending on the electrolysis conditions. In particular, by simply changing the working potential and the supporting electrolyte, the reaction can be directed towards the synthesis of the terminal alkyne (Et4NBF4) or the bromoalkyne (NaClO4). This study allowed to establish that 2-(bromoethynyl)naphthalene can be converted into 2-ethynylnaphthalene by cathodic reduction.

Inhibition of the α-carbonic anhydrase from Vibrio cholerae with amides and sulfonamides incorporating imidazole moieties.

We discovered novel and selective sulfonamides/amides acting as inhibitors of the α-carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) from the pathogenic bacterium Vibrio cholerae (VchCA). This Gram-negative bacterium is the causative agent of cholera and colonises the upper small intestine where sodium bicarbonate is present at a high concentration. The secondary sulfonamides and amides investigated here were potent, low nanomolar VchCA inhibitors whereas their inhibition of the human cytosolic isoforms CA I and II was in the micromolar range or higher. The molecules represent an interesting lead for antibacterial agents with a possibly new mechanism of action, although their CA inhibition mechanism is unknown for the moment.

Exploring the anti-biofilm activity of cinnamic acid derivatives in Candida albicans.

Some compounds, characterized by phenylethenyl moiety, such as methyl cinnamate and caffeic acid phenethyl ester, are able to inhibit C. albicans biofilm formation. On these bases, and as a consequence of our previous work, we synthesized a series of cinnamoyl ester and amide derivatives in order to evaluate them for the activity against C. albicans biofilm and planktonically grown cells. The most active compounds 7 and 8 showed ⩾50% biofilm inhibition concentrations (BMIC50) of 2µg/mL and 4µg/mL respectively, against C. albicans biofilm formation; otherwise, 7 showed an interesting activity also against mature biofilm, with BMIC50 of 8µg/mL.

New N,N-dimethylcarbamate inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase: design synthesis and biological evaluation.

A series of N,N-dimethylcarbamates containing a N,N-dibenzylamino moiety was synthesized and tested to evaluate their ability to inhibit Acetylcholinesterase (AChE). The most active compounds 4 and 8, showed 85 and 69% of inhibition at 50 µM, respectively. Furthermore, some basic SAR rules were outlined: an alkyl linker of six methylene units is the best spacer between the carbamoyl and dibenzylamino moieties; electron-withdrawal substituents on aromatics rings of the dibenzylamino group reduce the inhibitory power. Compound 4 produces a slow onset inhibition of AChE and this is not due to the carbamoylation of the enzyme, as demonstrated by the time-dependent inhibition assay of AChE with compound 4 and by MALDI-TOF MS analysis of trypsinized AChE inhibited by compound 4. Instead, compound 4 could act as a slow-binding inhibitor of AChE, probably because of its high conformational freedom due to the linear alkyl chain.

Design, synthesis and evaluation of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid derivatives as antioxidants, bio-metal chelating agents and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.

Metal ions, especially copper, zinc and iron, play an important role in the neurodegeneration process because they can affect protein misfolding, leading to the formation of the amyloid deposits and oxidative stress leading to reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here we report the synthesis and evaluation as antioxidant and metal chelating agents of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid derivatives. Synthesized compounds were tested by the 2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method showing a radical scavenging ability (EC50=0.093-0.118 µM) higher than Trolox used as reference. Furthermore, these compounds were able to bind both iron and copper, especially the iron (III), by the formation of hexa-coordinated complexes. Synthesized compounds were tested to evaluate their ability to inhibit acetyl- and butyryl-cholinesterase; the obtained results have demonstrated that they are selective inhibitors of AChE (Ki=1.5-18.9 µM) and result weakly active versus butyrylcholinesterase (BChE).

Activity of caffeic acid derivatives against Candida albicans biofilm.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the caffeic acid (1) and ester derivatives (2-10) against Candida albicans biofilm and to investigate whether these compounds are able to inhibit the biofilm formation or destroy pre-formed biofilm. Caffeic acid ester 7, cinnamic acid ester 8 and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid ester 10 are more active than fluconazole, used as reference drug, both on biofilm in formation with MIC50 values of 32, 32 and 16µg/mL, respectively, and in the early stage of biofilm formation (4h) with MIC50 values of 64, 32 and 64µg/mL, respectively. These esters result also more active than fluconazole on mature biofilm (24h), especially 8 and 10 with MIC50 values of 64µg/mL.

Recent Advances in Imidazolium-Based Dicationic Ionic Liquids as Organocatalysts: A Mini-Review.

Imidazolium-based dicationic ionic liquids (DILs) are gaining considerable space in the field of organocatalysis mainly due to the opportunities in offering new possible applicable structural variations. In addition to the well-known variables which made the ionic liquids (ILs) famous as the type of cation and anion used, the nature of the molecular spacer moiety turns out a further possibility to improve some physicochemical properties, for example, solubility, acidity, electrochemical behavior, and so on. For this reason, this class of ionic liquids has been considered as possible competitors to their corresponding monocationic salts in replacing common catalysts in organic synthesis, particularly in cases in which their bidentate nature could positively affect the catalytic activity. This mini-review is intended to highlight the progress carried out in the last six years in the field of organocatalysis, including DILs as such and as hybrids with polymers, nanomaterials, and composites.

Design, Synthesis, and In Vitro, In Silico and In Cellulo Evaluation of New Pyrimidine and Pyridine Amide and Carbamate Derivatives as Multi-Functional Cholinesterase Inhibitors.

Alzheimer disease is an age-linked neurodegenerative disorder representing one of the greatest medical care challenges of our century. Several drugs are useful in ameliorating the symptoms, even if none could stop or reverse disease progression. The standard approach is represented by the cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) that restore the levels of acetylcholine (ACh) by inhibiting the acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Still, their limited efficacy has prompted researchers to develop new ChEIs that could also reduce the oxidative stress by exhibiting antioxidant properties and by chelating the main metals involved in the disease. Recently, we developed some derivatives constituted by a 2-amino-pyrimidine or a 2-amino-pyridine moiety connected to various aromatic groups by a flexible amino-alkyl linker as new dual inhibitors of AChE and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). Following our previous studies, in this work we explored the role of the flexible linker by replacing the amino group with an amide or a carbamic group. The most potent compounds showed higher selectivity against BChE in respect to AChE, proving also to possess a weak anti-aggregating activity toward Aß42 and tau and to be able to chelate Cu2+ and Fe3+ ions. Molecular docking and molecular dynamic studies proposed possible binding modes with the enzymes. It is noteworthy that these compounds were predicted as BBB-permeable and showed low cytotoxicity on the human brain cell line.

Synthesis and Evaluation of the Antifungal and Toxicological Activity of Nitrofuran Derivatives.

Fungal diseases affect more than 1 billion people worldwide. The constant global changes, the advent of new pandemics, and chronic diseases favor the diffusion of fungal pathogens such as Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus, Trichophyton, Histoplasma capsulatum, and Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. In this work, a series of nitrofuran derivatives were synthesized and tested against different fungal species; most of them showed inhibitory activity, fungicide, and fungistatic profile. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC90) values for the most potent compounds range from 0.48 µg/mL against H. capsulatum (compound 11) and P. brasiliensis (compounds 3 and 9) to 0.98 µg/mL against Trichophyton rubrum and T. mentagrophytes (compounds 8, 9, 12, 13 and 8, 12, 13, respectively), and 3.9 µg/mL against Candida and Cryptococcus neoformans strains (compounds 1 and 5, respectively). In addition, all compounds showed low toxicity when tested in vitro on lung cell lines (A549 and MRC-5) and in vivo in Caenorhabditis elegans larvae. Many of them showed high selectivity index values. Thus, these studied nitrofuran derivatives proved to be potent against different fungal species, characterized by low toxicity and high selectivity; for these reasons, they may become promising compounds for the treatment of mycoses.

Evaluation of the Anti-Histoplasma capsulatum Activity of Indole and Nitrofuran Derivatives and Their Pharmacological Safety in Three-Dimensional Cell Cultures.

Histoplasma capsulatum is a fungus that causes histoplasmosis. The increased evolution of microbial resistance and the adverse effects of current antifungals help new drugs to emerge. In this work, fifty-four nitrofurans and indoles were tested against the H. capsulatum EH-315 strain. Compounds with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC90) equal to or lower than 7.81 µg/mL were selected to evaluate their MIC90 on ATCC G217-B strain and their minimum fungicide concentration (MFC) on both strains. The quantification of membrane ergosterol, cell wall integrity, the production of reactive oxygen species, and the induction of death by necrosis-apoptosis was performed to investigate the mechanism of action of compounds 7, 11, and 32. These compounds could reduce the extracted sterol and induce necrotic cell death, similarly to itraconazole. Moreover, 7 and 11 damaged the cell wall, causing flaws in the contour (11), or changing the size and shape of the fungal cell wall (7). Furthermore, 7 and 32 induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation higher than 11 and control. Finally, the cytotoxicity was measured in two models of cell culture, i.e., monolayers (cells are flat) and a three-dimensional (3D) model, where they present a spheroidal conformation. Cytotoxicity assays in the 3D model showed a lower toxicity in the compounds than those performed on cell monolayers. Overall, these results suggest that derivatives of nitrofurans and indoles are promising compounds for the treatment of histoplasmosis.

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease - a patent review (2016-present).

Introduction - AD, the most common form of dementia, has a multifactorial etiology, and the current therapy (AChEIs and memantine) is unable to interrupt its progress and fatal outcome. This is reflected in the research programs that are oriented toward the development of new therapeutics able to operate on multiple targets involved in the disease progression.Areas covered - The patents from 2016 to present regarding the use of AChEIs in AD, concerns the development of new AChEIs, multitarget or multifunctional ligands, or the associations of currently used AChEIs with other compounds acting on different targets involved in the AD.Expert opinion - The development of new multitarget AChEIs promises to identify compounds with great therapeutic potential but requires more time and effort in order to obtain drugs with the optimal pharmacodynamic profile. Otherwise, the research on new combinations of existing drugs, with known pharmacodynamic and ADME profile, could shorten the time and reduce the costs to develop a new therapeutic treatment for AD. From the analyzed data, it seems more likely that a response to the urgent need to develop effective treatments for AD therapy could come more quickly from studies on drug combinations than from the development of new AChEIs.

New Pyrimidine and Pyridine Derivatives as Multitarget Cholinesterase Inhibitors: Design, Synthesis, and In Vitro and In Cellulo Evaluation.

A new series of pyrimidine and pyridine diamines was designed as dual binding site inhibitors of cholinesterases (ChEs), characterized by two small aromatic moieties separated by a diaminoalkyl flexible linker. Many compounds are mixed or uncompetitive acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and/or butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) nanomolar inhibitors, with compound 9 being the most active on Electrophorus electricus AChE (EeAChE) (Ki = 0.312 µM) and compound 22 on equine BChE (eqBChE) (Ki = 0.099 µM). Molecular docking and molecular dynamic studies confirmed the interaction mode of our compounds with the enzymatic active site. UV-vis spectroscopic studies showed that these compounds can form complexes with Cu2+ and Fe3+ and that compounds 18, 20, and 30 have antioxidant properties. Interestingly, some compounds were also able to reduce Aß42 and tau aggregation, with compound 28 being the most potent (22.3 and 17.0% inhibition at 100 µM on Aß42 and tau, respectively). Moreover, the most active compounds showed low cytotoxicity on a human brain cell line and they were predicted as BBB-permeable.

New deferiprone derivatives as multi-functional cholinesterase inhibitors: design, synthesis and in vitro evaluation.

In order to obtain multi-functional molecules for Alzheimer's disease, a series of deferiprone derivatives has been synthesized and evaluated in vitro with the hypothesis that they can restore the cholinergic tone and attenuate the dyshomeostasis of the metals mainly involved in the pathology. These compounds were designed as dual binding site AChE inhibitors: they possess an arylalkylamine moiety connected via an alkyl chain to a 3-hydroxy-4-pyridone fragment, to allow the simultaneous interaction with catalytic active site (CAS) and peripheral anionic site (PAS) of the enzyme. Deferiprone moiety and 2-aminopyridine, 2-aminopyrimidine or 2,4-diaminopyrimidine groups have been incorporated into these compounds, in order to obtain molecules potentially able to chelate bio-metals colocalized in Aß plaques and involved in the generation of radical species. Synthesized compounds were tested by enzymatic inhibition studies towards EeAChE and eqBChE using Ellman's method. The most potent EeAChE inhibitor is compound 5a, with a Ki of 788 ± 51 nM, while the most potent eqBChE inhibitors are compounds 12 and 19, with Ki values of 182 ± 18 nM and 258 ± 25 nM respectively. Selected compounds, among the most potent cholinesterases inhibitors, were able to form complex with iron and in some cases with copper and zinc. Moreover, these compounds were characterized by low toxicity on U-87 MG Cell Line from human brain (glioblastoma astrocytoma).

Searching for new agents active against Candida albicans biofilm: A series of indole derivatives, design, synthesis and biological evaluation.

Candida albicans biofilm represents a major clinical problem due to its intrinsic tolerance to anti-fungal compounds and it has been highly related to infections in catheterized patients. Few compounds are described as able to inhibit biofilm formation or to interfere with preformed biofilm of C. albicans. Here we report the in vitro evaluation of anti-biofilm activity on C. albicans ATCC 10231 of a series of new and already known amine and amide indole derivatives. Among the studied compounds, fifteen resulted active on C. albicans ATCC 10231 biofilm, with BMIC50 ≤ 16 µg/mL. Three of them (7, 23 and 33) showed a selectivity towards mature biofilm and the most active of them was the compound 23 (BMIC50 = 4 µg/mL). On the other hands, two different compounds (21 and 22) were selective towards biofilm formation with BMIC50 values of 8 µg/mL. Otherwise, compounds 16 and 17 resulted active on biofilm formation, with BMIC50 of 8 µg/mL and 2 µg/mL respectively, and on mature biofilm with BMIC50 of 2 µg/mL. These two last compounds also showed an interesting activity towards the planktonic cells of C. albicans. A selection of the more active compounds was also evaluated on different C. albicans strains (PMC1042, PMC1083 and ATCC 10261), showing a comparable or higher anti-biofilm activity, especially on mature biofilm. In vivo toxicity studies using the Galleria mellonella larvae, were finally carried out on more active indole derivatives, showing that they are poorly toxic even at the highest concentrations tested (500-1000 µg/mL).

NHC in Imidazolium Acetate Ionic Liquids: Actual or Potential Presence?

Ionic liquids (ILs) are considered in the majority of cases green solvents, due to their virtually null vapor pressure and to the easiness in recycling them. In particular, imidazolium ILs are widely used in many fields of Chemistry, as solvents or precursors of N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs). The latter are easily obtained by deprotonation of the C2-H, usually using strong bases or cathodic reduction. Nevertheless, it is known that weaker bases (e.g., triethylamine) are able to promote C2-H/D exchange. From this perspective, the possibility of deprotonating C2-H group of an imidazolium cation by means of a basic counter-ion was seriously considered and led to the synthesis of imidazolium ILs spontaneously containing NHCs. The most famous of this class of ILs are N,N'-disubstituted imidazolium acetates. Due to the particular reactivity of this kind of ILs, they were appointed as "organocatalytic ionic liquids" or "proto-carbenes." Many papers report the use of these imidazolium acetates in organocatalytic reactions (i. e., catalyzed by NHC) or in stoichiometric NHC reactions (e.g., with elemental sulfur to yield the corresponding imidazole-2-thiones). Nevertheless, the actual presence of NHC in N,N'-disubstituted imidazolium acetate is still controversial. Moreover, theoretical studies seem to rule out the presence of NHC in such a polar environment as an IL. Aim of this Mini Review is to give the reader an up-to-date overview on the actual or potential presence of NHC in such an "organocatalytic ionic liquid," both from the experimental and theoretical point of view, without the intent to be exhaustive on N,N'-disubstituted imidazolium acetate applications.

Structure-guided approach identifies a novel class of HIV-1 ribonuclease H inhibitors: binding mode insights through magnesium complexation and site-directed mutagenesis studies.

Persistent HIV infection requires lifelong treatment and among the 2.1 million new HIV infections that occur every year there is an increased rate of transmitted drug-resistant mutations. This fact requires a constant and timely effort in order to identify and develop new HIV inhibitors with innovative mechanisms. The HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) associated ribonuclease H (RNase H) is the only viral encoded enzyme that still lacks an efficient inhibitor despite the fact that it is a well-validated target whose functional abrogation compromises viral infectivity. Identification of new drugs is a long and expensive process that can be speeded up by in silico methods. In the present study, a structure-guided screening is coupled with a similarity-based search on the Specs database to identify a new class of HIV-1 RNase H inhibitors. Out of the 45 compounds selected for experimental testing, 15 inhibited the RNase H function below 100 µM with three hits exhibiting IC50 values <10 µM. The most active compound, AA, inhibits HIV-1 RNase H with an IC50 of 5.1 µM and exhibits a Mg-independent mode of inhibition. Site-directed mutagenesis studies provide valuable insight into the binding mode of newly identified compounds; for instance, compound AA involves extensive interactions with a lipophilic pocket formed by Ala502, Lys503, and Trp (406, 426 and 535) and polar interactions with Arg557 and the highly conserved RNase H primer-grip residue Asn474. The structural insights obtained from this work provide the bases for further lead optimization.