Optical Monitoring of In Situ Iron Loading into Single, Native Ferritin Proteins.

Ferritin is a protein that stores and releases iron to prevent diseases associated with iron dysregulation in plants, animals, and bacteria. The conversion between iron-loaded holo-ferritin and empty apo-ferritin is an important process for iron regulation. To date, studies of ferritin have used either ensemble measurements to quantify the characteristics of a large number of proteins or single-molecule approaches to interrogate labeled or modified proteins. Here we demonstrate the first real-time study of the dynamics of iron ion loading and biomineralization within a single, unlabeled ferritin protein. Using optical nanotweezers, we trapped single apo- and holo-ferritins indefinitely, distinguished one from the other, and monitored their structural dynamics in real time. The study presented here deepens the understanding of the iron uptake mechanism of ferritin proteins, which may lead to new therapeutics for iron-related diseases.

Clean Block Copolymer Microparticles from Supercritical CO2: Universal Templates for the Facile and Scalable Fabrication of Hierarchical Mesostructured Metal Oxides.

Metal oxide microparticles with well-defined internal mesostructures are promising materials for a variety of different applications, but practical routes to such materials that allow the constituent structural length scales to be precisely tuned have thus far been difficult to realize. Herein, we describe a novel platform methodology that utilizes self-assembled block copolymer (BCP) microparticles synthesized by dispersion polymerization in supercritical CO2 (scCO2) as universal structure directing agents for both hydrolytic and nonhydrolytic sol-gel routes to metal oxides. Spherically structured poly(methyl methacrylate- block-4-vinylpyridine) (PMMA- b-P4VP) BCP microparticles are translated into a series of the corresponding organic/inorganic composites and pure inorganic derivatives with a high degree of fidelity for the metal oxides TiO2 and LiFePO4. The final products are comprised of particles close to 1 µm in size with a highly ordered internal morphology of interconnected spheres between 20-40 nm in size. Furthermore, our approach is readily scalable, enabling grams of pure or carbon-coated TiO2 and LiFePO4, respectively, to be fabricated in a facile two step route involving ambient temperature mixing and drying stages. Given that both length scales within these BCP microparticles can be controlled independently by minor variations in the reagent quantities used, the present general strategy could represent a milestone in the design and synthesis of hierarchical metal oxides with completely tunable dimensions.

Tunable Pentapeptide Self-Assembled ß-Sheet Hydrogels.

Oligopeptide-based supramolecular hydrogels hold promise in a range of applications. The gelation of these systems is hard to control, with minor alterations in the peptide sequence significantly influencing the self-assembly process. We explored three pentapeptide sequences with different charge distributions and discovered that they formed robust, pH-responsive hydrogels. By altering the concentration and charge distribution of the peptide sequence, the stiffness of the hydrogels could be tuned across two orders of magnitude (2-200 kPa). Also, through reassembly of the ß-sheet interactions the hydrogels could self-heal and they demonstrated shear-thin behavior. Using spectroscopic and cryo-imaging techniques, we investigated the relationship between peptide sequence and molecular structure, and how these influence the mechanical properties of the hydrogel. These pentapeptide hydrogels with tunable morphology and mechanical properties have promise in tissue engineering, injectable delivery vectors, and 3D printing applications.

Combined hydrogels that switch human pluripotent stem cells from self-renewal to differentiation.

The ability of materials to define the architecture and microenvironment experienced by cells provides new opportunities to direct the fate of human pluripotent stem cells (HPSCs) [Robinton DA, Daley GQ (2012) Nature 481(7381):295-305]. However, the conditions required for self-renewal vs. differentiation of HPSCs are different, and a single system that efficiently achieves both outcomes is not available [Giobbe GG, et al. (2012) Biotechnol Bioeng 109(12):3119-3132]. We have addressed this dual need by developing a hydrogel-based material that uses ionic de-cross-linking to remove a self-renewal permissive hydrogel (alginate) and switch to a differentiation-permissive microenvironment (collagen). Adjusting the timing of this switch can preferentially steer the HPSC differentiation to mimic lineage commitment during gastrulation to ectoderm (early switch) or mesoderm/endoderm (late switch). As an exemplar differentiated cell type, we showed that directing early lineage specification using this single system can promote cardiogenesis with increased gene expression in high-density cell populations. This work will facilitate regenerative medicine by allowing in situ HPSC expansion to be coupled with early lineage specification within defined tissue geometries.

A comprehensive comparison of dye-sensitized NiO photocathodes for solar energy conversion.

We investigated a range of different mesoporous NiO electrodes prepared by different research groups and private firms in Europe to determine the parameters which influence good quality photoelectrochemical devices. This benchmarking study aims to solve some of the discrepancies in the literature regarding the performance of p-DSCs due to differences in the quality of the device fabrication. The information obtained will lay the foundation for future photocatalytic systems based on sensitized NiO so that new dyes and catalysts can be tested with a standardized material. The textural and electrochemical properties of the semiconducting material are key to the performance of photocathodes. We found that both commercial and non-commercial NiO gave promising solar cell and water-splitting devices. The NiO samples which had the two highest solar cell efficiency (0.145% and 0.089%) also gave the best overall theoretical H2 conversion.

Structural Flexibility and Disassembly Kinetics of Single Ferritin Molecules Using Optical Nanotweezers.

Ferritin, a spherical protein shell assembled from 24 subunits, functions as an efficient iron storage and release system through its channels. Understanding how various chemicals affect the structural behavior of ferritin is crucial for unravelling the origins of iron-related diseases in living organisms including humans. In particular, the influence of chemicals on ferritin's dynamics and iron release is barely explored at the single-protein level. Here, by employing optical nanotweezers using double-nanohole (DNH) structures, we examined the effect of ascorbic acid (reducing reagent) and pH on individual ferritin's conformational dynamics. The dynamics of ferritin increased as the concentration of ascorbic acid approached saturation. At pH 2.0, ferritin exhibited significant structural fluctuations and eventually underwent a stepwise disassembly into fragments. This work demonstrated the disassembly pathway and kinetics of a single ferritin molecule in solution. We identified four critical fragments during its disassembly pathway, which are 22-mer, 12-mer, tetramer, and dimer subunits. Moreover, we present single-molecule evidence of the cooperative disassembly of ferritin. Interrogating ferritin's structural change in response to different chemicals holds importance for understanding their roles in iron metabolism, hence facilitating further development of medical treatments for its associated diseases.

A facile one step route that introduces functionality to polymer powders for laser sintering.

Laser Sintering (LS) is a type of Additive Manufacturing (AM) exploiting laser processing of polymeric particles to produce 3D objects. Because of its ease of processability and thermo-physical properties, polyamide-12 (PA-12) represents ~95% of the polymeric materials used in LS. This constrains the functionality of the items produced, including limited available colours. Moreover, PA-12 objects tend to biofoul in wet environments. Therefore, a key challenge is to develop an inexpensive route to introduce desirable functionality to PA-12. We report a facile, clean, and scalable approach to modification of PA-12, exploiting supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) and free radical polymerizations to yield functionalised PA-12 materials. These can be easily printed using commercial apparatus. We demonstrate the potential by creating coloured PA-12 materials and show that the same approach can be utilized to create anti-biofouling objects. Our approach to functionalise materials could open significant new applications for AM.

Kerogen nanoscale structure and CO2 adsorption in shale micropores.

Gas storage and recovery processes in shales critically depend on nano-scale porosity and chemical composition, but information about the nanoscale pore geometry and connectivity of kerogen, insoluble organic shale matter, is largely unavailable. Using adsorption microcalorimetry, we show that once strong adsorption sites within nanoscale network are taken, gas adsorption even at very low pressure is governed by pore width rather than chemical composition. A combination of focused ion beam with scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy reveal the nanoscale structure of kerogen includes not only the ubiquitous amorphous phase but also highly graphitized sheets, fiber- and onion-like structures creating nanoscale voids accessible for gas sorption. Nanoscale structures bridge the current gap between molecular size and macropore scale in existing models for kerogen, thus allowing accurate prediction of gas sorption, storage and diffusion properties in shales.

Three dimensional nanoscale analysis reveals aperiodic mesopores in a covalent organic framework and conjugated microporous polymer.

The integrated analytical approach developed in this study offers a powerful methodology for the structural characterisation of complex molecular nanomaterials. Structures of a covalent organic framework based on boronate esters (COF-5) and a conjugated microporous polymer (Aza-CMP) have been investigated by a combination of several electron microscopy techniques elucidating the three-dimensional topology of the complex polycrystalline (COF) and non-crystalline (CMP) materials. Unexpected, aperiodic mesoporous channels of 20-50 nm in diameter were found to be penetrating the COF and CMP particles, which cannot be detected by X-ray diffraction techniques. The mesopores appear to be stable under a range of different conditions and accessible to gas molecules, exhibiting a particular bonding capability with CO2 in the case of the CMP. The mesoporosity is unrelated to the intrinsic chemical structures of the COF or CMP but rather it reflects the mechanisms of polymer particle formation in a polycondensation reaction. The mesopores may be templated by clusters of solvent molecules during the COF or CMP synthesis, leaving cavities within the polymer particles. The unexpected mesoporosity discovered in COF and CMP materials begs for re-assessment of the nature of framework materials and may open new opportunities for applications of these molecular materials in gas sorption or catalysis.

Binding of recombinant human coagulation factor VIII to lipid nanotubes.

Cryo-electron microscopy has the power to visualise lipid membranes at the closest to in vivo conditions. The structure of the lipid bilayer can be well resolved and the interactions between lipid-protein and protein-protein molecules followed at the molecular level. We undertook an extended Cryo-electron microscopy study to follow the factor VIII binding to phosphatidylserine containing lipid nanotubes at different lipid composition. Obtaining well ordered tubes is required to define the factor VIII membrane-bound structure. The observed alterations in the arrangement of the protein molecules are indicative for the flexibility of the membrane-bound factor VIII. Understanding the significance of these conformational changes is essential to comprehend the function of factor VIII in coagulation and as a drug for Hemophilia A.

Cryo-electron microscopy of coagulation Factor VIII bound to lipid nanotubes.

Factor VIII (FVIII) is a key protein in blood coagulation, deficiency or malfunction of which causes Haemophilia A. The sole cure for this condition is intravenous administration of FVIII, whose membrane-bound structure we have studied by Cryo-electron microscopy and image analysis. Self-assembled lipid nanotubes were optimised to bind FVIII at close to native conditions. The tubes diameter was constant at 30 nm and the lipid bilayer resolved. The FVIII molecules were well defined, forming an 8.5 nm thick outer layer, and appeared to reach the hydrophobic core of the bilayer. The two known FVIII atomic models were superimposed with the averaged 2D protein densities. The insertion of the FVIII within the membrane was evaluated, reaffirming that the membrane-binding C2 or C1-C2 domain(s) fully penetrate the outer leaflet of the lipid layer. The presented results lay the basis for new models of the FVIII overall orientation and membrane-binding mechanism.

Author Correction: Additive manufacture of complex 3D Au-containing nanocomposites by simultaneous two-photon polymerisation and photoreduction.

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Additive manufacture of complex 3D Au-containing nanocomposites by simultaneous two-photon polymerisation and photoreduction.

The fabrication of complex three-dimensional gold-containing nanocomposite structures by simultaneous two-photon polymerisation and photoreduction is demonstrated. Increased salt delivers reduced feature sizes down to line widths as small as 78 nm, a level of structural intricacy that represents a significant advance in fabrication complexity. The development of a general methodology to efficiently mix pentaerythritol triacrylate (PETA) with gold chloride hydrate (HAuCl4∙3H2O) is reported, where the gold salt concentration is adjustable on demand from zero to 20 wt%. For the first-time 7-Diethylamino-3-thenoylcoumarin (DETC) is used as the photoinitiator. Only 0.5 wt% of DETC was required to promote both polymerisation and photoreduction of up to 20 wt% of gold salt. This efficiency is the highest reported for Au-containing composite fabrication by two-photon lithography. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) analysis confirmed the presence of small metallic nanoparticles (5.4 ± 1.4 nm for long axis / 3.7 ± 0.9 nm for short axis) embedded within the polymer matrix, whilst X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed that they exist in the zero valent oxidation state. UV-vis spectroscopy defined that they exhibit the property of localised surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). The capability demonstrated in this study opens up new avenues for a range of applications, including plasmonics, metamaterials, flexible electronics and biosensors.

Making the practically impossible "Merely difficult"--Cryogenic FIB lift-out for "Damage free" soft matter imaging.

The preparation of thinned lamellae from bulk samples for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis has been possible in the focussed ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM) for over 20 years via the in situ lift-out method. Lift-out offers a fast and site specific preparation method for TEM analysis, typically in the field of materials science. More recently it has been applied to a low-water content biological sample (Rubino 2012). This work presents the successful lift-out of high-water content lamellae, under cryogenic conditions (cryo-FIB lift-out) and using a nanomanipulator retaining its full range of motion, which are advances on the work previously done by Rubino (2012). Strategies are explored for maintaining cryogenic conditions, grid attachment using cryo-condensation of water and protection of the lamella when transferring to the TEM.

Biomaterial modification of urinary catheters with antimicrobials to give long-term broadspectrum antibiofilm activity.

Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) is the commonest hospital-acquired infection, accounting for over 100,000 hospital admissions within the USA annually. Biomaterials and processes intended to reduce the risk of bacterial colonization of the catheters for long-term users have not been successful, mainly because of the need for long duration of activity in flow conditions. Here we report the results of impregnation of urinary catheters with a combination of rifampicin, sparfloxacin and triclosan. In flow experiments, the antimicrobial catheters were able to prevent colonization by common uropathogens Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli for 7 to 12weeks in vitro compared with 1-3days for other, commercially available antimicrobial catheters currently used clinically. Resistance development was minimized by careful choice of antimicrobial combinations. Drug release profiles and distribution in the polymer, and surface analysis were also carried out and the process had no deleterious effect on the mechanical performance of the catheter or its balloon. The antimicrobial catheter therefore offers for the first time a means of reducing infection and its complications in long-term urinary catheter users.