Forward and Backward Recalling Sequences in Spatial and Verbal Memory Tasks: What Do We Measure?

There are different views in the literature about the number and inter-relationships of cognitive domains (such as memory and executive function) and a lack of understanding of the cognitive processes underlying these domains. In previous publications, we demonstrated a methodology for formulating and testing cognitive constructs for visuo-spatial and verbal recall tasks, particularly for working memory task difficulty where entropy is found to play a major role. In the present paper, we applied those insights to a new set of such memory tasks, namely, backward recalling block tapping and digit sequences. Once again, we saw clear and strong entropy-based construct specification equations (CSEs) for task difficulty. In fact, the entropy contributions in the CSEs for the different tasks were of similar magnitudes (within the measurement uncertainties), which may indicate a shared factor in what is being measured with both forward and backward sequences, as well as visuo-spatial and verbal memory recalling tasks more generally. On the other hand, the analyses of dimensionality and the larger measurement uncertainties in the CSEs for the backward sequences suggest that caution is needed when attempting to unify a single unidimensional construct based on forward and backward sequences with visuo-spatial and verbal memory tasks.

Exploring a New Application of Construct Specification Equations (CSEs) and Entropy: A Pilot Study with Balance Measurements.

Both construct specification equations (CSEs) and entropy can be used to provide a specific, causal, and rigorously mathematical conceptualization of item attributes in order to provide fit-for-purpose measurements of person abilities. This has been previously demonstrated for memory measurements. It can also be reasonably expected to be applicable to other kinds of measures of human abilities and task difficulty in health care, but further exploration is needed about how to incorporate qualitative explanatory variables in the CSE formulation. In this paper we report two case studies exploring the possibilities of advancing CSE and entropy to include human functional balance measurements. In case study I, physiotherapists have formulated a CSE for balance task difficulty by principal component regression of empirical balance task difficulty values from Berg's Balance Scale transformed using the Rasch model. In case study II, four balance tasks of increasing difficulty due to diminishing bases of support and vision were briefly investigated in relation to entropy as a measure of the amount of information and order as well as physical thermodynamics. The pilot study has explored both methodological and conceptual possibilities and concerns to be considered in further work. The results should not be considered as fully comprehensive or absolute, but rather open up for further discussion and investigations to advance measurements of person balance ability in clinical practice, research, and trials.

The Role of Entropy in Construct Specification Equations (CSE) to Improve the Validity of Memory Tests: Extension to Word Lists.

Metrological methods for word learning list tests can be developed with an information theoretical approach extending earlier simple syntax studies. A classic Brillouin entropy expression is applied to the analysis of the Rey's Auditory Verbal Learning Test RAVLT (immediate recall), where more ordered tasks-with less entropy-are easier to perform. The findings from three case studies are described, including 225 assessments of the NeuroMET2 cohort of persons spanning a cognitive spectrum from healthy older adults to patients with dementia. In the first study, ordinality in the raw scores is compensated for, and item and person attributes are separated with the Rasch model. In the second, the RAVLT IR task difficulty, including serial position effects (SPE), particularly Primacy and Recency, is adequately explained (Pearson's correlation R=0.80) with construct specification equations (CSE). The third study suggests multidimensionality is introduced by SPE, as revealed through goodness-of-fit statistics of the Rasch analyses. Loading factors common to two kinds of principal component analyses (PCA) for CSE formulation and goodness-of-fit logistic regressions are identified. More consistent ways of defining and analysing memory task difficulties, including SPE, can maintain the unique metrological properties of the Rasch model and improve the estimates and understanding of a person's memory abilities on the path towards better-targeted and more fit-for-purpose diagnostics.

The Role of Entropy in Construct Specification Equations (CSE) to Improve the Validity of Memory Tests.

Commonly used rating scales and tests have been found lacking reliability and validity, for example in neurodegenerative diseases studies, owing to not making recourse to the inherent ordinality of human responses, nor acknowledging the separability of person ability and item difficulty parameters according to the well-known Rasch model. Here, we adopt an information theory approach, particularly extending deployment of the classic Brillouin entropy expression when explaining the difficulty of recalling non-verbal sequences in memory tests (i.e., Corsi Block Test and Digit Span Test): a more ordered task, of less entropy, will generally be easier to perform. Construct specification equations (CSEs) as a part of a methodological development, with entropy-based variables dominating, are found experimentally to explain (r =R2 = 0.98) and predict the construct of task difficulty for short-term memory tests using data from the NeuroMET (n = 88) and Gothenburg MCI (n = 257) studies. We propose entropy-based equivalence criteria, whereby different tasks (in the form of items) from different tests can be combined, enabling new memory tests to be formed by choosing a bespoke selection of items, leading to more efficient testing, improved reliability (reduced uncertainties) and validity. This provides opportunities for more practical and accurate measurement in clinical practice, research and trials.

Rationale and Design of a Novel Method to Assess the Usability of Body-Worn Absorbent Incontinence Care Products by Caregivers.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to develop and test a new method to measure the usability of absorbent incontinence care products from the caregivers' perspective and to investigate if the method can be used to differentiate between product types in a product change. DESIGN: Process evaluation and validation study. SUBJECTS AND SETTING: Product developers and end users participated in designing the new method. Thereafter, professional caregivers acted as testers of the new method, ranking usability when performing absorbent product changes on patients in a simulated nursing home care environment, assisted by third-party research institute moderators. METHODS: Design and evaluation of a new method designed to assess the usability of body-worn absorbent incontinence care products for lay caregivers were completed. The evaluation included formative and summative evaluations of effectiveness (product fit), efficiency (time and physical workload), and satisfaction. A person-centered approach aimed at including all subjects and settings to generate a single usability score for decision making and product benchmarking. Experienced caregivers changed 4 types of products: (1) disposable body-worn pads with mesh briefs (2-piece system); (2) disposable all-in-one briefs; (3) disposable, T-shaped, and belted brief; and (4) disposable pull-up pants on simulated patients in standing or lying position. Each product change was performed by 1 unassisted experienced caregiver. The probability of success as a score for each product type was calculated across the 4 metrics and reported with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Descriptive and inferential statistics were developed assuming a binary statistical model, using the weighted scores from each of the factors. An overall usability score was calculated. RESULTS: The method we developed discriminated between usability of different product types. The overall score for the disposable pull-up product (90%; CI: 83%-97%) was better (P < .05) than for the disposable T-shaped brief (83%; CI: 77%-89%), the disposable brief (53%; CI: 45%-61%), and the disposable body-worn pad with mesh pant (61%; CI: 56%-66%) in standing patients. For lying patients, the overall score for the disposable T-shaped brief product (81%; CI: 73%-89% was better (P < .05) than the disposable brief (65%; CI: 45%-61%) and the disposable body-worn pads with mesh brief (62%; CI: 55%-69%). Reliability was evaluated quantitatively in terms of measurement uncertainties in the results. CONCLUSION: The method we described demonstrated differentiation of usability based on product type indicating concurrent validity. Further testing in diverse real-world care environments is needed to evaluate and confirm the validity and to assess reliability of this method in the research setting.

Rasch analysis of the Patient Participation in Rehabilitation Questionnaire (PPRQ).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the Patient Participation in Rehabilitation Questionnaire (PPRQ) according to Rasch measurement theory. METHOD: Five hundred twenty-two post-discharge patients from a neurological rehabilitation unit were included. The PPRQ questionnaire comprises 20 items rated by a cohort of 522 patients about their experiences of participating in rehabilitation. The measurement properties of the PPRQ were evaluated by Rasch analysis of the responses. RESULTS: The Rasch analysis of 20 items showed some major misfits, particularly three items addressing the involvement of family members. After removing those items, the model fit improved and no significant DIF remained. Despite improvements, person values (-2.96 to 4.86 logits) were not fully matched by the item values (-0.61 to 0.77 logits). Neither did the t test for unidimensionality meet the criterion of 5%, and local dependency was present. The unidimensionality and local dependency could, however, be accommodated for by four testlets. CONCLUSION: The PPRQ-17 showed that a ruler with a reasonable and clinical hierarchy can be constructed, although the expectations of dimensionality and local dependency need to be evaluated further. Despite room for further development, PPRQ-17 nevertheless shows improved measurement precision in terms of patient leniency compared with previous evaluations with classical test theory. In turn, this can play a crucial role when comparing different rehabilitation programs and planning tailored care development activities.

A Questionnaire for Assessing User Satisfaction With Mobile Health Apps: Development Using Rasch Measurement Theory.

BACKGROUND: Mobile health (mHealth) apps offer great opportunities to deliver large-scale, cost-efficient digital solutions for implementing lifestyle changes. Furthermore, many mHealth apps act as medical devices. Yet, there is little research on how to assess user satisfaction with an mHealth solution. OBJECTIVE: This study presents the development of the mHealth Satisfaction Questionnaire and evaluates its measurement properties. METHODS: Respondents who took part in the Health Integrator Study and were randomized to use the Health Integrator smartphone app for lifestyle changes (n=112), with and without additional telephone coaching, rated their satisfaction with the app using the new 14-item mHealth Satisfaction Questionnaire. The ratings were given on a 5-point Likert scale and measurement properties were evaluated using Rasch measurement theory (RMT). RESULTS: Optimal scoring was reached when response options 2, 3, and 4 were collapsed, giving three response categories. After omitting two items that did not fit into the scale, fit residuals were within, or close to, the recommended range of ±2.5. There was no differential item functioning between intervention group, age group, or sex. The Person Separation Index was 0.79, indicating that the scale's ability to discriminate correctly between person leniency was acceptable for group comparisons but not for individual evaluations. The scale did not meet the criterion of unidimensionality; 16.1% (18/112) of the respondents were outside the desired range of -1.96 to 1.96. In addition, several items showed local dependency and three underlying dimensions emerged: negative experiences, positive experiences, and lifestyle consequences of using the mHealth solution. CONCLUSIONS: In times where mHealth apps and digital solutions are given more attention, the mHealth Satisfaction Questionnaire provides a new possibility to measure user satisfaction to ensure usability and improve development of new apps. Our study is one of only a few cases where RMT has been used to evaluate the usability of such an instrument. There is, though, a need for further development of the mHealth Satisfaction Questionnaire, including the addition of more items and consideration of further response options. The mHealth Satisfaction Questionnaire should also be evaluated in a larger sample and with other mHealth apps and in other contexts. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03579342; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03579342.

Travel behaviour change in old age: the role of critical incidents in public transport.

Older people's travel behaviour is affected by negative or positive critical incidents in the public transport environment. With the objective of identifying such incidents during whole trips and examining how travel behaviour had changed, we have conducted in-depth interviews with 30 participants aged 65-91 years in the County of Stockholm, Sweden. Out of 469 incidents identified, 77 were reported to have resulted in travel behaviour change, 67 of them in a negative way. Most critical incidents were encountered in the physical environment on-board vehicles and at stations/stops as well as in pricing/ticketing. The findings show that more personal assistance, better driving behaviour, and swift maintenance of elevators and escalators are key facilitators that would improve predictability in travelling and enhance vulnerable older travellers' feeling of security. The results demonstrate the benefit of involving different groups of end users in future planning and design, such that transport systems would meet the various needs of its end users.

Overall accessibility to traveling by rail for the elderly with and without functional limitations: the whole-trip perspective.

Elderly persons' perceived accessibility to railway traveling depends on their functional limitations/diseases, their functional abilities and their travel behaviors in interaction with the barriers encountered during whole trips. A survey was conducted on a random sample of 1000 city residents (65-85 years old; 57% response rate). The travels were perceived least accessible by respondents with severely reduced functional ability and by those with more than one functional limitation/disease (e.g., restricted mobility and chronic pain). Those who traveled "often", perceived the accessibility to be better than those who traveled less frequently. For travelers with high functional ability, the main barriers to more frequent traveling were travel costs and low punctuality. For those with low functional ability, one's own health was reported to be the main barrier. Our results clarify the links among existing functional limitations/functional abilities, the barriers encountered, the travel behavior, and the overall accessibility to traveling. By operationalizing the whole-trip concept as a chain of events, we deliver practical knowledge on vulnerable groups for decision-making to improve the transport environment for all.