Diversity of ecotypes of five species of ryegrass from Northwestern Spain by phenotypic traits and microsatellites.

BACKGROUND: The Agricultural Research Centre of Mabegondo (Xunta de Galicia, A Coruña, Spain) conserves one of the most important collections of phytogenetic resources of ecotypes and natural populations of grassland species from northwestern Spain, among them populations of ryegrass (Lolium spp.), one of the most cultivated forage grasses in the world. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the diversity among commercial cultivars and natural ryegrass populations with phenotypic traits and molecular markers. RESULTS: Eleven polymorphic microsatellites loci were used to analyze 58 ecotypes and 10 cultivars (680 DNA samples in total) differentiating 673 genotypes. Two main groups were detected by the Structure analysis, one related to Lolium perenne and a second to Lolium multiflorum. The first group showed two subgroups and the second three. The cluster of L. multiflorum showed two subgroups not related with the third cluster including commercial varieties, one from the Canary Islands (with Lolium rigidum included) and a second one from northwestern Spain, which presented specific agromorphological characteristics, such as lower FES (number of days from 1 January, when three heads per plant were flowering per plot), CRE (growth in flowering, in g of dry matter), and AIN (number of inflorescences per plant). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first time that a large amount of data on ryegrass from the Iberian Peninsula has been analyzed, obtaining a clear genetic differentiation of the autochthonous varieties from the commercial varieties analyzed. In addition, the genetic structure found in the ecotypes was related to the phenotypic variation analyzed. Being of interest in the conservation of biodiversity and in obtaining better adapted varieties of ryegrasses, due to their specific phenotypic traits, such as a lower FES, CRE and AIN.

Screening of Galician grapevine varieties by SNPs, phenotypic traits, and phytopathology.

The genetic erosion of the European grapevine diversity in the last century has promoted the conservation of varieties in germplasm banks to prevent their disappearance. The study of these varieties is necessary as it would allow the diversification of the wine market, as well as provide a source of genes to face new pathogens or climate constraints. In this work, the grapevine varieties preserved in the "Estación de Viticultura e Enoloxía de Galicia" (EVEGA) Germplasm Bank (Ourense, Spain) were widely characterized, combining ampelography, ampelometry, agronomy, and phytopathology. Moreover, genetic characterization was carried out through the analysis of 48 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). A Bayesian analysis based on the SNP data was carried out to define the genetic structure of the EVEGA Germplasm Bank, which allowed the differentiation of two main reconstructed panmictic populations (RPPs), confirming previous results obtained based on microsatellite markers (SSRs). A great diversity between varieties was found for almost every parameter evaluated for ampelography, ampelometry, phytopatology, phenology, and berry quality. A principal component analysis (PCA) performed with these phenotypical data allowed discrimination among some groups of varieties included in different genetic populations. This study allowed us to evaluate the grapevine diversity maintained in the EVEGA Germplasm Bank and characterize varieties of potential value for breeding programs of interest for the Galician viticulture.

Autochthonous Wheat Grown in Organic and Conventional Systems: Nutritional Quality of Flour and Bread.

A growing interest in the recovery and enhancement of crops, particularly local varieties such as 'Caaveiro' wheat, has been observed. This study aims to investigate the impact of cultivation systems (organic versus conventional) on the nutritional quality of 'Caaveiro' flour and breads protected by the PGI "Pan Galego," employing two fermentation methods (sourdough versus sourdough and biological yeast). Organic flour exhibited significantly higher levels of moisture, fat, sucrose, phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), and copper (Cu) while also exhibiting a lower total starch and zinc (Zn) content. Organic bread, produced using both fermentation methods, demonstrated significantly higher protein, carbohydrate, total, resistant, and rapidly digestible starch, ash, Na, P, iron (Fe), and Cu content. Additionally, they contained less moisture compared to conventional bread. Despite variations in nutritional characteristics based on the cultivation system, the organic approach proved effective at producing high-quality products with a positive environmental impact, which is highly appreciated by consumers.

Introducing lupin in autochthonous wheat rotation systems in Galicia (NW Spain): An environmental and economic assessment.

Crop diversification, as a sustainable land management practice, is a potential strategy to face soil degradation, climate change and food security, being the incorporation of legumes in cereal rotation systems, a strategy that improves soil nutrient levels. In a context of sustainable agriculture, this manuscript aims to evaluate the effect of lupin cultivation from an environmental and economic perspective in Galician winter wheat-based rotation systems. The life cycle analysis (LCA) methodology was applied for three rotation systems over a six-year period: lupin + wheat + oilseed rape (RA1), lupin + potato + wheat (RA2), and lupin + wheat + oilseed rape + maize (RA3). The general approach of this study was to collect primary data associated with the rotation crops to quantify their environmental impacts and economic benefits and to identify their advantages or disadvantages. Comparing and contrasting the environmental profiles based on three functional units: hectare land (ha), financial indicator (gross margin, €) and yield production (kg of wheat grain) allows a robust evaluation of each crop rotation system. Relating to rotations without lupin, the results indicate that for the impact categories evaluated, the introduction of lupin proved to be favourable with notable reductions of 64% and 30% in the environmental categories of Global Warming and Marine Eutrophication, respectively. Moreover, favourable economic consequences were evident in rotations RA1 and RA2 with a 19% and 51% increase in financial indicators, respectively, but with a marginal reduction of 2% in gross margin in RA3. This study motivates stakeholders to understand the environmental impacts of diversification strategies in agricultural systems and serves as a baseline to address the assessment of the social aspects of these systems for a complete sustainability perspective.

Determining the environmental and economic implications of lupin cultivation in wheat-based organic rotation systems in Galicia, Spain.

Crop rotation represents a potentially sustainable strategy to address environmental problems of intensive agricultural practices, such as soil degradation, biodiversity reduction, and greenhouse gas emissions. This manuscript assesses the environmental and economic implications of introducing lupin cultivation into winter wheat-based rotation systems under an organic regime in Galicia, Spain. Life Cycle Assessment methodology was used to determine the environmental impacts of three rotation systems over a six-year period: lupin → wheat → rapeseed (OA1), lupin → potato → wheat (OA2), and lupin → wheat → rapeseed ‖ maize (OA3). For a robust assessment, three functional units were applied: land management (ha), economic indicator (gross margin in euros) and protein content (1 kg of protein-corrected grain). Moreover, the environmental profiles were compared with rotation systems without lupin crop in a conventional regime. In terms of Global Warming, impacts of about 2214, 3119 and 766 kg CO2eq·ha-1 were obtained for OA1, OA2 and OA3, respectively. Moreover, OA1 is the best rotation in terms of land and protein. Meanwhile, OA2 rotation is the best choice in the economic function, as it obtained the highest level of gross margin (5708 €·ha-1). Furthermore, with the exception of acidification, organic systems are less impactful than conventional systems. Ammonia emissions from the use of manure are the reason for these higher impacts. Organic rotations OA1 and OA2 have about 6 % or 15 % less gross margin than their conventional counterparts, respectively, however, an increase of 28 % was obtained for rotation OA3. This study helps decision-makers to implement environmentally and economically viable strategies.

Element Content in Different Wheat Flours and Bread Varieties.

The most consumed cereal-based product worldwide is bread. "Caaveiro", an autochthonous variety with a recent growing interest, is one of the wheat varieties that fulfill the 25% local flour requirement in the PGI "Pan Galego" bread baking industry. The element content of the refined wheat flours used to make "Pan Galego" (''Caaveiro'', FCv; Castilla, FC; and a mixture of both, FM) was evaluated in ICP-MS. In addition, wholegrain flour (FWM) was included in the analysis. Loaves of bread were made with these flours (a, 100% FC; b, 100% FCv); and c, FM: 75% FC + 25% FCv) and their element content was analyzed. Wholegrain flour ranked the highest in almost all elements, highlighting the P (494.80 mg/100 g), while the FM and the FC presented the opposite behavior, with the highest Se values (14.4 and 15.8 mg/100 g, respectively). FCv was situated in an intermediate position regarding P, K, Mg, Mn, Zn, Fe and Na content, standing closer to FWM, although it presents the highest values for Cu (1076.3 µg/100 g). The differences observed in flour were maintained in bread. Hence, the local cultivar ''Caaveiro'' has an interesting nutritional profile from the point of view of the element content.

Chestnut cultivar diversification process in the Iberian Peninsula, Canary Islands, and Azores.

This is a large-scale molecular study based on simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci of the diversification process in chestnut cultivars from Portugal and Spain, from the northern Iberian Peninsula to the Canary Islands and the Azores. A total of 593 grafted chestnut trees (Castanea sativa Mill.) were analysed with 10 SSRs: 292 from Portugal and 301 from Spain. Some of the trees studied were more than 300 years old. Accessions were analysed using a model-based Bayesian procedure to assess the geographical structure and to assign individuals to reconstructed populations based on the SSR genotypes. We found 356 different genotypes with a mean value of clonality of 33% owing to grafting. Mutations accounted for 6%, with hybridization being the main diversification process that can explain the great diversity found. Ten main cultivar groups were detected: four in northern Spain, five in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula, and one in southern Spain related to the centre of the Iberian Peninsula. This work demonstrated that cultivar origin and the diversification process was a combination of clonal propagation of selected seedlings, hybridization, and mutations, which allowed high levels of diversity to be maintained with respect to selected clones for fruit production. Furthermore, seedlings and graft sticks facilitated the transport to new destinations in the colonization process, transporting sometimes more than 3000 km if we consider the Azores and the Canary Islands.

Life cycle assessment of autochthonous varieties of wheat and artisanal bread production in Galicia, Spain.

For millennia, bread and wheat have been one of the most important sources of nutrients in many civilizations. Today, mechanization and evolution in agriculture and food processing have intensified yields and modified the biological and nutritional aspects of multiple crops and foods. The Galician bread is a reference value of food heritage in Spain, which is made from common wheat grain and is a mixture of indigenous Galician wheat and conventional Spanish wheat. In the pursuit of product excellence, it is interesting to identify the environmental profile as support criteria in decision-making, not only to analyse product environmental sustainability, but also as a marketing element to improve consumer awareness. The paper has a twofold perspective to analyse the environmental burdens of wheat cultivation and the bread sector, using life cycle assessment approach: 1) the comparison of the different types of agricultural systems, i.e. the cultivation of Galician wheat following a strategy of monoculture and crop rotation, certified Galician seed production and its comparison with conventional wheat cultivation and 2) the environmental profile of Galician bread. The functional units chosen were 1 kg of wheat grain transported to the milling facility and 1 kg of Galician bread. The results show that wheat cultivation presents the main environmental impacts of bread production, mainly due to the use of agrochemicals and field emissions. The best cultivation scenario corresponds to a crop rotation system, since chemical fertilisation is not applied. In comparative terms with many staple foods produced in Europe, Galician bread has a low environmental impact. The overall environmental results of bread production draw attention to the dependence of bread and flour manufacturers on the agricultural sector, highlighting the need to share responsibilities across the supply chain. In addition, this study contributes to the stakeholder debate on environmental impacts related to food heritage.