The Impact of Monetary Incentives on Delay Discounting Within a Year-Long Physical Activity Intervention.

BACKGROUND: Delay discounting is the depreciation in a reward's perceived value as a function of the time until receipt. Monetary incentive programs that provide rewards contingent on meeting daily physical activity (PA) goals may change participants' delay discounting preferences. PURPOSE: Determine if monetary incentives provided in close temporal proximity to meeting PA goals changed delay discounting, and if such changes mediated intervention effects. METHODS: Inactive adults (n = 512) wore accelerometers during a 12-month intervention where they received proximal monetary incentives for meeting daily moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) goals or delayed incentives for study participation. Delay discount rate and average MVPA were assessed at baseline, end of intervention, and a 24-month follow-up. Using structural equation modeling, we tested effects of proximal versus delayed rewards on delay discounting and whether any changes mediated intervention effects on MVPA. PA self-efficacy was also evaluated as a potential mediator, and both self-efficacy and delay discounting were assessed as potential moderators of intervention effects. RESULTS: Proximal rewards significantly increased participants' delay discounting (ß = 0.238, confidence interval [CI]: -0.078, 0.380), indicating greater sensitivity to reinforcement timing. This change did not mediate incentive-associated increases in MVPA at the end of the 12-month intervention (ß = -0.016, CI: -0.053, 0.019) or at a 24-month follow-up (ß = -0.020, CI: -0.059, 0.018). Moderation effects were not found. CONCLUSIONS: Incentive-induced increases in delay discounting did not deleteriously impact MVPA. This finding may help assuage concerns about using monetary incentives for PA promotion, but further research regarding the consequences of changes in delay discounting is warranted.

This study examined the effects of providing proximal monetary incentives for meeting daily exercise goals on people's tendency to value immediate versus delayed rewards. Inactive adults (n = 512) participated in a year-long program where they wore an accelerometer each day and received either (i) small monetary rewards in close temporal proximity to instances of meeting daily exercise goals or (ii) larger rewards at 2-month intervals for ongoing participation. Those receiving proximal incentives showed an increased preference for immediate rewards, yet this reported change did not compromise long-term physical activity gains. In a comparison analysis, we found that proximal monetary incentives were not associated with changes in exercise self-efficacy. Overall, the findings suggest that monetary incentives for exercise do not negatively impact people's activity levels, though more research is needed to fully understand the implications of changes in reward timing preferences.

Undergraduate students engaging in hands-on gerontology research: a participatory case study of value gained and lessons learned.

As the population ages, it is essential that professionals across disciplines have experience and competence working with older adults. Though experiential learning opportunities have been extensively documented as a tool to accomplish this goal, student engagement in gerontology research has not been examined in detail. This participatory case study highlights the perspectives of undergraduate student researchers involved in a hands-on pilot research study that explored connections between cognitive, physical, and everyday function in midlife and older adults while testing the feasibility of a mobile app for early detection of cognitive decline related to Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. As participants, students (n = 11) completed a survey about their experience and participated in focus groups. As researchers, students and faculty coded open-ended survey and focus group responses. We found that students gained both personal and professional skills from their experience. Emergent themes relevant to their experience included the overarching research lab environment and study-specific conditions related to interpersonal and technical aspects. Although these findings reflect student perspectives in one case, they can be used as a guide to support future endeavors to include undergraduate students as testers in gerontology research.

The moderating impact of neighborhood walkability on mHealth interventions to increase moderate to vigorous physical activity for insufficiently active adults in a randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Ecological models suggest that interventions targeting specific behaviors are most effective when supported by the environment. This study prospectively examined the interactions between neighborhood walkability and an mHealth intervention in a large-scale, adequately powered trial to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). METHODS: Healthy, insufficiently active adults (N = 512) were recruited purposefully from census block groups ranked on walkability (high/low) and socioeconomic status (SES, high/low). Participants were block-randomized in groups of four to WalkIT Arizona, a 12-month, 2 × 2 factorial trial evaluating adaptive versus static goal setting and immediate versus delayed financial reinforcement delivered via text messages. Participants wore ActiGraph GT9X accelerometers daily for one year. After recruitment, a walkability index was calculated uniquely for every participant using a 500-m street network buffer. Generalized linear mixed-effects hurdle models tested for interactions between walkability, intervention components, and phase (baseline vs. intervention) on: (1) likelihood of any (versus no) MVPA and (2) daily MVPA minutes, after adjusting for accelerometer wear time, neighborhood SES, and calendar month. Neighborhood walkability was probed at 5th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 95th percentiles to explore the full range of effects. RESULTS: Adaptive goal setting was more effective in increasing the likelihood of any MVPA and daily MVPA minutes, especially in lower walkable neighborhoods, while the magnitude of intervention effect declined as walkability increased. Immediate reinforcement showed a greater increase in any and daily MVPA compared to delayed reinforcement, especially relatively greater in higher walkable neighborhoods. CONCLUSIONS: Results partially supported the synergy hypotheses between neighborhood walkability and PA interventions and suggest the potential of tailoring interventions to individuals' neighborhood characteristics. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Preregistered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT02717663).

Funeral and interment practices of rural residents: A mixed methods study.

There are few studies on interment preferences and practices for people in remote and rural regions of developed countries. This mixed methods study in rural Australia collated data on funeral and interment practices with an ethnographic exploration of the post-death preferences of terminally-ill rural residents. In the region, between February 2015 and May 2016, 44% of decedents were cremated. Burial preferences reflected family traditions, generational connections to historic cemeteries, and the wish to instantiate belonging to people and place. Cremation provided the opportunity for ashes to be scattered at personally-significant places. Funeral planning was important for patients and family caregivers, and funerals are valued rural community rituals.

Delay Discount Rate Moderates a Physical Activity Intervention Testing Immediate Rewards.

Financial incentives can increase physical activity (PA), but differences in the immediacy of reward delivery and individual differences in delay discount rates (i.e., higher discount values associated with less tolerance for delayed rewards) may explain differential responding. The current study tested whether delay discount rate moderated the relative effectiveness of immediate financial rewards on increasing daily PA. Inactive, overweight adults (ages 18-60, N = 96) were randomized to receive either smaller, immediate goal-contingent rewards or larger, delayed rewards for participation. Delay discount rates were derived for those who completed the Monetary Choice Questionnaire (N = 85). Linear mixed models tested interactions between discount rate and intervention arm on changes in mean daily Fitbit-measured steps from baseline to intervention phases, and rates of change during the intervention phase. Across all groups, participants increased by 2258 steps/day on average from baseline to intervention and declined by 9 steps/day across the 4-month intervention phase. The mean increase in daily steps was greater for immediate reward-arm participants across all discount rates. Descriptive exploration of reward effects by delay discount rate suggested that the magnitude of reward effects decreased at higher discount rates. During the 4-month intervention phase, rates of decline in daily steps were similar in both reward arms, but declines became more pronounced at higher discount rates. Overall, intervention efficacy decreased with less tolerance for delays. The importance of financial reward immediacy for increasing PA appears to increase with greater delay discount rates.

Dangerous sadness: nervoza among first and second generation Macedonian immigrants to Australia.

OBJECTIVE: Nervoza is a commonly-used illness category among Macedonian Australians. Although nervoza belongs broadly to the category of 'nerve illnesses' little is known of its meaning among Macedonian immigrants, and whether there is intergenerational attrition in its meaning and use. We aimed to explore how nervoza and its treatment are perceived by members of the Macedonian community in Australia. DESIGN: In-depth interviews in Macedonian with 18 participants from the Macedonian community in Melbourne, Australia. RESULTS: Nervoza is a layered concept relating shame, emotional experience and nerves, used as an idiom of distress and sadness in the presence of acute and chronic stressors. Nervoza develops in both the social world (through poverty, grief or the loss of war), and in the psyche of distressed and isolated people. It is viewed as dangerous on many levels: to physical health, as a 'gateway condition' to long-term psychological illnesses such as depression and schizophrenia, and to the person's social well-being. The normalised treatment for nervoza in Macedonia - benzodiazepines - is the subject of significant medical control in Australia. CONCLUSION: For sufferers of nervoza, the social self is both medicalized and stigmatised. Health services in Australia are often considered marginal in the management of nervoza. Second generation Macedonians viewed the concept as unhelpful, and possibly increasing the stigmatisation of mental illnesses. The lack of knowledge about, and underutilisation of, mental health services and support groups in the Macedonian Australian community should be the focus of community-based inter-generational health literacy initiatives.

Older Adult Lifespace Varies by Driving Status and Residential Population Density.

Individual- and environmental-level factors may explain differential trajectories in lifespace mobility in older adults. The current study tested whether driving status was associated with lifespace, whether lifespace change varied by driving status, and whether residential context moderated the relationship between driving status and lifespace. Participants were older adults ages 65 to 94 (mean = 73.6 + 5.9) enrolled in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly Study (N = 2,792). Lifespace and driving status were assessed at baseline and first, second, third, and fifth annual follow-up visits. Residential population density was measured as the population density for participants' enrollment site counties. Two sites were categorized as low density (< 600 per square mile) and four sites were categorized as high density (> 1,200 per square mile). Multilevel longitudinal models tested relationships between driving status, residential population density, and lifespace over five years. After controlling for potential confounders, results indicated that non-drivers had smaller mean lifespace than drivers across five years. Rates of lifespace declines did not differ between drivers and non-drivers. Non-drivers at baseline residing in low population density areas had smaller lifespace than non-drivers in high population density areas and all drivers regardless of population density. The findings suggest that residential context plays a role in older adults' travel behaviors and choices. Further research is needed to understand what residential characteristics support or hinder lifespace maintenance for older adult non-drivers, such as availability and usability of transportation and walkability.

The 'safe death': An ethnographic study exploring the perspectives of rural palliative care patients and family caregivers.

BACKGROUND: In rural settings, relationships between place and self are often stronger than for urban residents, so one may expect that rural people would view dying at home as a major feature of the 'good death'. AIM: To explore the concept of the 'good death' articulated by rural patients with life-limiting illnesses, and their family caregivers. DESIGN: Ethnography, utilising open-ended interviews, observations and field-notes. PARTICIPANTS: In total, 12 rural (town and farm) patients with life-limiting illnesses, 18 family caregivers and 6 clinicians, in the Snowy Monaro region of New South Wales, Australia, participated in this study over the course of the deaths of the patients. Interviews were transcribed and analysed with observational data using an emergent thematic process. RESULTS: A 'safe death' was central to a 'good death' and was described as a death in which one could maintain (1) a connection with one's previous identity; (2) autonomy and control over decisions regarding management of end-of-life care and (3) not being overwhelmed by the physical management of the dying process. For all participants, the preferred place of death was the 'safe place', regardless of its physical location. CONCLUSION: Safety, in this study, is related to a familiar place for death. A home death is not essential for and does not ensure a 'good death'. We all have a responsibility to ensure all places for dying can deliver the 'safe death'. Future research could explore the inter-relationships between safety and preference for home or home-like places of death.

Place of death in the Snowy Monaro region of New South Wales: A study of residents who died of a condition amenable to palliative care.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the place of death of residents in a rural region of New South Wales. DESIGN: Cross-sectional quantitative study using death data collected from local funeral directors (in person and websites), residential aged-care facilities, one multipurpose heath service and obituary notices in the local media (newspapers/radio). SETTING: Snowy Monaro region (New South Wales Australia). PARTICIPANTS: Residents, with advanced frailty or one of 10 conditions amenable to palliative care, who died between 1 February 2015 and 31 May 2016. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Place of death. RESULTS: Of 224 deaths in this period, 138 were considered amenable to palliative care. Twelve per cent of these deaths occurred in a private residence, 38% in the usual place of residence and 91% within the region. CONCLUSION: Most rural residents with conditions amenable to palliative care died in the region. Most did not die in their usual place of residence. Further qualitative work is needed to determine palliative care patients' and family caregivers' preferences for, and the importance placed on, place of death. While there may be a need to support an increase in home deaths, local rural hospitals and residential aged-care facilities must not be overlooked as a substitute for inpatient hospices.

Rural end-of-life care from the experiences and perspectives of patients and family caregivers: A systematic literature review.

BACKGROUND: End-of-life care must be relevant to the dying person and their family caregiver regardless of where they live. Rural areas are distinct and need special consideration. Gaining end-of-life care experiences and perspectives of rural patients and their family caregivers is needed to ensure optimal rural care. AIMS: To describe end-of-life care experiences and perspectives of rural patients and their family caregivers, to identify facilitators and barriers to receiving end-of-life care in rural/remote settings and to describe the influence of rural place and culture on end-of-life care experiences. DESIGN: A systematic literature review utilising the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. DATA SOURCES: Four databases (PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus and Web of Science) were searched in January 2016, using a date filter of January 2006 through January 2016; handsearching of included article references and six relevant journals; one author contacted; pre-defined search terms and inclusion criteria; and quality assessment by at least two authors. RESULTS: A total of 27 articles (22 rural/remote studies) from developed and developing countries were included, reporting rural end-of-life care experiences and perspectives of patients and family caregivers. Greatest needs were informational (developed countries) and medications (developing countries). Influence of rural location included distances, inaccessibility to end-of-life care services, strong community support and importance of home and 'country'. CONCLUSION: Articulation of the rural voice is increasing; however, there still remain limited published rural studies reporting on patient and family caregivers' experiences and perspectives on rural end-of-life care. Further research is encouraged, especially through national and international collaborative work.

Online versus in-person comparison of Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS) assessments: reliability of alternate methods.

BACKGROUND: An online version of the Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (Abbreviated) tool was adapted to virtually audit built environment features supportive of physical activity. The current study assessed inter-rater reliability of MAPS Online between in-person raters and online raters unfamiliar with the regions. METHODS: In-person and online audits were conducted for a total of 120 quarter-mile routes (60 per site) in Phoenix, AZ and San Diego, CA. Routes in each city included 40 residential origins stratified by walkability and SES, and 20 commercial centers. In-person audits were conducted by raters residing in their region. Online audits were conducted by raters in the alternate location using Google Maps (Aerial and Street View) images. The MAPS Abbreviated Online tool consisted of four sections: overall route, street segments, crossings and cul-de-sacs. Items within each section were grouped into subscales, and inter-rater reliability (ICCs) was assessed for subscales at multiple levels of aggregation. RESULTS: Online and in-person audits showed excellent agreement for overall positive microscale (ICC = 0.86, 95% CI [0.80, 0.90]) and grand scores (ICC = 0.93, 95% CI [0.89, 0.95]). Substantial to near-perfect agreement was found for 21 of 30 (70%) subscales, valence, and subsection scores, with ICCs ranging from 0.62, 95% CI [0.50, 0.72] to 0.95, 95% CI [0.93, 0.97]. Lowest agreement was found for the aesthetics and social characteristics scores, with ICCs ranging from 0.07, 95% CI [-0.12, 0.24] to 0.27, 95% CI [0.10, 0.43]. CONCLUSIONS: Results support use of the MAPS Abbreviated Online tool to reliably assess microscale neighborhood features that support physical activity and may be used by raters residing in different geographic regions and unfamiliar with the audit areas.

Impact of interprofessional education about psychological and medical comorbidities on practitioners' knowledge and collaborative practice: mixed method evaluation of a national program.

BACKGROUND: Many patients with chronic physical illnesses have co-morbid psychological illnesses, which may respond to interprofessional collaborative care. Continuing education programs frequently focus on skills and knowledge relevant for individual illnesses, and unidisciplinary care. This study evaluates the impact of "Mind the Gap", an Australian interprofessional continuing education program about management of dual illnesses, on practitioners' knowledge, use of psychological strategies and collaborative practice. METHODS: A 6-h module addressing knowledge and skills needed for patients with physical and psychological co-morbid illnesses was delivered to 837 practitioners from mixed health professional backgrounds, through locally-facilitated workshops at 45 Australian sites. We conducted a mixed-methods evaluation, incorporating observation, surveys and network analysis using data collected, before, immediately after, and three months after training. RESULTS: Six hundred forty-five participants enrolled in the evaluation (58 % GPs, 17 % nurses, 15 % mental health professionals, response rate 76 %). Participants' knowledge and confidence to manage patients with psychological and physical illnesses improved immediately. Among the subset surveyed at three months (response rate 24 %), referral networks had increased across seven disciplines, improvements in confidence and knowledge were sustained, and doctors, but no other disciplines, reported an increase in use of motivational interviewing (85.9 % to 96.8 %) and mindfulness (58.6 % to 74 %). CONCLUSIONS: Interprofessional workshops had an immediate impact on the stated knowledge and confidence of participants to manage patients with physical and psychological comorbidities, which appears to have been sustained. For some attendees, there was a sustained improvement in the size of their referral networks and their use of some psychological strategies.

Daily Physical Activity and Cognitive Function Variability in Older Adults.

Physical activity (PA) is believed to preserve cognitive function in older adulthood, though little is known about these relationships within the context of daily life. The present microlongitudinal pilot study explored within- and between-person relationships between daily PA and cognitive function and also examined within-person effect sizes in a sample of community-dwelling older adults. Fifty-one healthy participants (mean age = 70.1 years) wore an accelerometer and completed a cognitive assessment battery for five days. There were no significant associations between cognitive task performance and participants' daily or average PA over the study period. Effect size estimates indicated that PA explained 0-24% of within-person variability in cognitive function, depending on cognitive task and PA dose. Results indicate that PA may have near-term cognitive effects and should be explored as a possible strategy to enhance older adults' ability to perform cognitively complex activities within the context of daily living.

Longitudinal Associations Between Changes in Physical Function and Driving Mobility Behaviors of Older Adults.

OBJECTIVES: To examine time-varying correlations between multiple indices of physical function and driving mobility in older adults across five years. DESIGN: Longitudinal. PARTICIPANTS: Older drivers aged 65-91 (M = 73.6 ± 5.78) who were randomly assigned to the no-contact control arm of the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly study (N = 598). MEASUREMENTS: The driving mobility outcomes were self-reported driving space, driving exposure, driving frequency, and weekly mileage assessed at baseline, and first, second, third, and fifth follow-up visits. Physical functioning measures included grip strength, the Turn360 test, and self-reported physical function. Multilevel models examined relationships between changes in physical functioning and driving mobility outcomes over five years. RESULTS: Driving space and driving frequency decreased over time, especially for older individuals. Changes in physical function were positively related to changes in driving mobility after controlling for demographics, attrition, baseline cognitive function and visual acuity, and changes in general health. Patterns of associations varied depending on the specific physical function measure and mobility outcome. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the time-varying nature of the relationships between physical functioning and driving mobility. Further research is needed to fully understand dynamic associations between driving mobility and key components of mobility that vary over time.

Using qualitative mixed methods to study small health care organizations while maximising trustworthiness and authenticity.

BACKGROUND: The primary health care sector delivers the majority of health care in western countries through small, community-based organizations. However, research into these healthcare organizations is limited by the time constraints and pressure facing them, and the concern by staff that research is peripheral to their work. We developed Q-RARA-Qualitative Rapid Appraisal, Rigorous Analysis-to study small, primary health care organizations in a way that is efficient, acceptable to participants and methodologically rigorous. METHODS: Q-RARA comprises a site visit, semi-structured interviews, structured and unstructured observations, photographs, floor plans, and social scanning data. Data were collected over the course of one day per site and the qualitative analysis was integrated and iterative. RESULTS: We found Q-RARA to be acceptable to participants and effective in collecting data on organizational function in multiple sites without disrupting the practice, while maintaining a balance between speed and trustworthiness. CONCLUSIONS: The Q-RARA approach is capable of providing a richly textured, rigorous understanding of the processes of the primary care practice while also allowing researchers to develop an organizational perspective. For these reasons the approach is recommended for use in small-scale organizations both within and outside the primary health care sector.

Older Adults' Perceptions of Cognitive, Physical, and Exergame Training: A Mixed Methods Investigation of a Four-Armed Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial.

Purpose: Although the health benefits of behavioral interventions for older adults are well studied, research focused on intervention acceptability in older adult populations is less established and is needed. This mixed methods study investigated older adults' perceptions of training interventions. Methods: Community-dwelling older adults (N = 41) were randomized into three groups (cognitive, physical, and exergame) and completed 20 in-lab training sessions over 10 weeks. At every fifth session, participants provided feedback on their perceived gains across functional domains, enjoyment of and motivation to complete training, and aspects they most and least enjoyed regarding study participation. Results: Based on the multivariate analysis of variance, perceived cognitive and everyday function gains did not vary by training group. However, physical and exergame groups perceived greater improvement in physical function than the cognitive training group (P < 0.001). Enjoyment of and motivation to complete training did not vary by training group. Exploratory qualitative coding results suggest that participants across groups most enjoyed social interaction and feelings of improvement. Participants least enjoyed traveling to the study site and engaging in aspects of training (e.g., specific games, structure or duration of training). Conclusion: These findings highlight the importance of incorporating meaningful social engagement and balancing the challenge of training components with goal attainment when working with older adults, regardless of the intervention type. Future research and practice should consider salient aspects of the participant experience (e.g., social connection, accessible locations or remote options) when designing interventions for older adults.

Bearing witness through medicine: an exploratory study of attitudes to service among Australian evangelical Christian doctors.

This study explores the attitudes of Australian evangelical Christian doctors to healing, suffering and good practice, using in-depth interviews. Doctors described an intellectualised faith, in which medical care was conceived in itself as a way of bearing witness. The alleviation of suffering, for these doctors, included supporting patients to rediscover purpose and meaning in their lives. There was diversity of opinion about evangelising, with many feeling that this was a contingent activity best conducted outside the consultation. This cohort of doctors, mostly non-denominational, had consciously engaged in work with the poor and marginalised as an expression of their faith.

Anxiety management in Australian general practice: an analysis of encounters from 2006 - 2016.

BACKGROUND: Anxiety disorders are highly prevalent mental health conditions managed predominantly by general practitioners (GPs). This study aimed to examine the management of anxiety by Australian GPs since the introduction of the Better Access to Psychiatrists, Psychologists and General Practitioners initiative in 2006. METHODS: We conducted secondary analysis of Bettering the Evaluation and Care of Health data on GP encounters for anxiety from 2006 to 2016 (N = 28,784). We calculated point estimates and used multivariate logistic regression to explore the effect of GP and patient characteristics on rates and types of management. RESULTS: The management rate of anxiety increased from 2.3% of GP encounters in 2006 to 3.2% in 2016. Over the 10-year period, increases were seen in referrals to psychologists (AOR = 1.09, 95%CI = 1.07-1.11, p < .0001) and selective serotonin / serotonin-noradrenalin reuptake inhibitors (AOR = 1.05, 95%CI = 1.03-1.06, p < .0001), and benzodiazepines decreased (AOR = 0.94, 95%CI = 0.92-0.95, p < .0001). Systematic differences in management were found for patient and GP characteristics, including high rates of benzodiazepines in certain groups. CONCLUSIONS: Anxiety is accounting for more of the GP workload, year on year. GP management of anxiety has become more closely aligned with practice guidelines since 2006. However, high rates of benzodiazepine prescribing in certain groups remains a concern. Further research is needed into GP treatment decision making for anxiety.

Feasibility of a pilot dyadic randomized controlled trial testing the effects of three behavioral interventions on older adults' cognitive, physical and everyday function.

Introduction: Maintaining functional abilities is critical for optimizing older adults' well-being and independence. This randomized controlled trial (RCT) pilot examined the feasibility of testing the effects of three commercially available interventions on function-related outcomes in older adults. Methods: Pairs of community-dwelling older adults (N=55, Mage=71.4) were randomized to a 10-week intervention (cognitive-COG, physical-EX, combined exergame-EXCOG, or control-CON). Cognitive, physical, and everyday function were assessed at baseline, immediately post-intervention, and 6-months post-intervention. Feasibility was evaluated using recruitment, enrollment, training adherence, and retention metrics. Variability and patterns of change in functional outcomes were examined descriptively. Results: A total of 208 individuals were screened, with 26% subsequently randomized. Across training arms, 95% of training sessions were completed and 89% of participants were retained at immediate post-test. Variability in functional outcomes and patterns of change differed across study arms. Discussion: Results support a fully powered RCT, with several modifications to the pilot study design, to investigate short- and long-term training impacts.