Hepatitis C virus infection status and associated factors among a multi-site sample of people who used illicit drugs in the Amazon region.

BACKGROUND: Elevated rates of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) infection have been reported in epidemiological studies with people who used illicit drugs (PWUIDs) in different Brazilian regions. In Brazil's Amazon region, studies have already identified the common use of illicit drugs among adolescents and the high prevalence of HCV infections among PWUIDs. However, all studies done with PWUIDs were conducted with small samples and within limited geographic coverage. This study determined the prevalence and risk factors for HCV infection in PWUIDs in the Amazon region, northern Brazil, as well as estimating the prevalence and factors associated with the HCV spontaneous clearance (HSC). METHODS: This cross-sectional study accessed 1666 PWUIDs from multiple municipalities of the Amazon region. Socio-demographic, economic, drug use and health-related information were collected through interviews. Blood samples collected were tested for the presence of anti-HCV antibodies and RNA-HCV. HCV genotypes were identified by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Logistic regressions were run to identify factors independently associated with HCV infection status and HSC. RESULTS: In total, 577 (34.6%) featured HCV antibodies, of which 384 (23.1%) had active HCV infection and 193 (11.6%) indicated HSC. Genotypes 1 (80.2%) and 3 (18.8%) were detected. HCV infection status was associated with the length of illicit drug use history, factors related to parenteral and sexual transmission, and factors of socio-economic marginalization leading to potential risk activities for HCV. HSC was associated with the ethnic (including indigenous) background of participants. CONCLUSIONS: High levels of HCV infection were detected in PWUIDs. Genotype 1 was predominant. Intense use of illicit drugs, unprotected sexual intercourse, high number of sexual partners and social marginalization were associated with all HCV infection. HSC was associated with origin (Amazonian-born) and non-white (e.g., Black or Indigenous) of PWUIDs. These findings emphasize the need for improve HCV prevention and control services and care for PWUIDs in the Brazilian Amazon region.

HBV infection in HIV-infected subjects in the state of Piauí, Northeast Brazil.

In this study, the prevalence, genotype frequency, and risk factors for HBV infection in 768 HIV-infected subjects living in Piauí were determined. Forty-six (6.0 %) HIV-positive subjects were reactive for HBsAg and positive for HBV-DNA. Genotypes A (71.8 %), F (23.9 %) and D (4.3 %) were identified. Multivariate analysis revealed an association between HIV-HBV coinfection and male gender, older age groups, unprotected sex, reporting more than ten sexual partners throughout life, STD, and tattooing. This study shows the importance of monitoring sites and professionals who perform tattooing and practice safe sex to prevent the spread of HIV and HBV infections.

Syphilis and Co-Infections with HIV-1, HBV, and HCV among People Who Use Crack-Cocaine in Northern Brazil.

The rates of syphilis and viral co-infections among people who use crack-cocaine (PWUCC) were assessed in this study. This cross-sectional study relied on biological and self-reported socio-behavioral data from a convenience sample of 990 PWUCC from twenty-six municipalities in the states of Amapá and Pará, northern Brazil. Blood samples were collected to assess the presence of Treponema pallidum using the Rapid Qualitative Test (RQT) and the Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL). Reactive samples by RQT were used to assess the presence of HBV, HCV, and HIV-1 using Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Logistic regression models were used to determine the association of variables assessed with syphilis. In total, 287 (29.0%) of the PWUCC sample had reactive results for syphilis. HBV (15.7%), HCV (5.9%), and HIV-1 (9.8%) were detected among PWUCC with syphilis. Young age, low monthly income and education level, long duration of crack-cocaine use, condomless sex, multiple sex partners, and exchange of sex for money/drugs were associated with syphilis. The present study provides unique insights on the epidemiological status of syphilis among PWUCC in northern Brazil, with multiple implications for improving urgent interventions for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment.

Treponema pallidum in female sex workers from the Brazilian Marajó Archipelago: prevalence, risk factors, drug-resistant mutations and coinfections.

BACKGROUND: Female sex workers (FSWs) are an especially vulnerable group for syphilis and other sexually transmitted infection (STIs). This study determined the prevalence of syphilis in FSWs and factors associated with this disease in the Marajó Archipelago (northern Brazil), as well as the frequency of point mutations (A2058G and A2059G) in the 23S rRNA gene of Treponema pallidum and coinfections with hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and hepatitis D virus (HDV). METHODS: FSWs were diagnosed using a rapid qualitative test and the isolates were evaluated for the presence of point mutations by real-time PCR. Blood samples with T. pallidum were tested for the presence of HBV, HCV and HDV by ELISA and confirmed by real-time PCR. The factors associated with syphilis were identified using Poisson regression models. RESULTS: Overall, 41.1% FSWs tested positive for syphilis and 23.5% were infected with strains having A2058G/A2059G point mutations. HBV (23.0%) and HCV (8.1%) were detected among FSWs with syphilis. Six factors were associated with syphilis: low levels of education, reduced income, drug use, unprotected sex, a lengthy career in prostitution and a lack of regular medical check-ups. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate an urgent need for implementation of effective strategies to diagnose, prevent and treat syphilis, as well as other STIs, in this Brazilian region.

Detection and Genetic Characterization of Hepatitis B and D Viruses: A Multi-Site Cross-Sectional Study of People Who Use Illicit Drugs in the Amazon Region.

Hepatitis B (HBV) and delta (HDV) viruses are endemic in the Amazon region, but vaccine coverage against HBV is still limited. People who use illicit drugs (PWUDs) represent a high-risk group due to common risk behavior and socioeconomic factors that facilitate the acquisition and transmission of pathogens. The present study assessed the presence of HBV and HBV-HDV co-infection, identified viral sub-genotypes, and verified the occurrence of mutations in coding regions for HBsAg and part of the polymerase in HBV-infected PWUDs in municipalities of the Brazilian states of Amapá and Pará, in the Amazon region. In total, 1074 PWUDs provided blood samples and personal data in 30 municipalities of the Brazilian Amazon. HBV and HDV were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and polymerase chain reaction. Viral genotypes were identified by nucleotide sequencing followed by phylogenetic analysis, whereas viral mutations were analyzed by specialized software. High rates of serological (32.2%) and molecular (7.2%) markers for HBV were detected, including cases of occult HBV infection (2.5%). Sub-genotypes A1, A2, D4, and F2a were most frequently found. Escape mutations due to vaccine and antiviral resistance were identified. Among PWUDs with HBV DNA, serological (19.5%) and molecular (11.7%) HDV markers were detected, such as HDV genotypes 1 and 3. These are worrying findings, presenting clear implications for urgent prevention and treatment needs for the carriers of these viruses.

Prevalence and risk factors for HIV-1 infection in people who use illicit drugs in northern Brazil.

BACKGROUND: People who use illicit drugs (PWUDs) have a high risk of viral infections. To date, there is a paucity of information on HIV infection among PWUDs in remote Brazilian regions. This study determined the prevalence and factors associated with HIV-1 infection among PWUDs in northern Brazil. METHODS: Sociodemographic, economic, drug use and health-related information were collected through interviews from a community-recruited, multi-site sample of 1753 PWUDs. The blood samples collected were tested for the presence of HIV-1 using chemiluminescence immunoassay and PCR or western blotting. Logistic regressions identified factors independently associated with HIV-1 infection. RESULTS: In total, 266 (15.2%) PWUDs were HIV-1 positive. Hepatitis B virus and/or hepatitis C virus nucleic acid was detected in 65 (3.7%) PWUDs infected by HIV-1. The factors associated with HIV-1 infection were male gender, older age, a lower educational level and a lower income, crack cocaine use, a longer drug use history and a history of drug injection and engagement in unsafe sex, sex work and a higher number of sexual partners. CONCLUSIONS: The current study provides unique, initial insights into HIV and co-infection status and pertinent risk factors among PWUDs in northern Brazil, with clear and diverse implications for urgently improved prevention and treatment intervention needs.

Hepatitis C Virus among Female Sex Workers: A Cross-Sectional Study Conducted along Rivers and Highways in the Amazon Region.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies found a high prevalence of pathogens among female sex workers (FSWs) in the Amazon region, and established their parenteral and sexual transmission. This study estimated the prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and associated risk factors, and the frequency of HCV genotypes and resistance-associated substitutions (RASs) in this vulnerable group. METHODS: Distinct sampling methods were used to access 412 FSWs in cities and riverside communities in the Amazon region from 2015 to 2018. Three methods for HCV diagnosis were used to determine infection status. HCV genotypes and RASs were identified by sequencing and nucleotide fragment analysis. An association between HCV infection and exposure factors was determined by bivariate and multivariate analysis. RESULTS: In total, 44 (10.7%) FSWs were exposed to HCV, and 32 (7.8%) of them had active infection. Nine socioeconomic characteristics and risky sexual behaviors were associated with HCV exposure, particularly unprotected sex and condom exemption for the clients who paid extra money. Genotype 1 (81.3%) and 3 (18.7%) were detected. The frequency of FSWs with RASs was 23.1% (6/26) for grazoprevir related to the occurrence of substitutions Y56F and S122G. CONCLUSIONS: HCV infection among FSWs is highly prevalent and dominated by genotype I. Urgent preventive and treatment measures are required to reduce HCV infection in FSWs and the general population.