Composite Echocardiographic Score to Predict Long-Term Survival Following Myocardial Infarction.

BACKGROUND: Whilst the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) remains the primary echocardiographic measure widely utilised for risk stratification following myocardial infarction (MI), it has a number of well recognised limitations. The aim of this study was to compare the prognostic utility of a composite echocardiographic score (EchoScore) composed of prognostically validated measures of left-ventricular (LV) size, geometry and function, to the utility of LVEF alone, for predicting survival following MI. METHODS: Retrospective data on 394 consecutive patients with a first-ever MI were included. Comprehensive echocardiography was performed within 24 hours of admission for all patients. EchoScore consisted of LVEF<50%, left atrial volume index>34 mL/m2, average E/e >14, E/A ratio>2, abnormal LV mass index, and abnormal LV end-systolic volume index. A single point was allocated for each measure to derive a score out of 6. The primary outcome measure was all-cause mortality. RESULTS: At a median follow-up of 24 months there were 33 deaths. On Kaplan-Meier analysis, a high EchoScore (>3) displayed significant association with all-cause mortality (log-rank χ2=74.48 p<0.001), and was a better predictor than LVEF<35% (log-rank χ2=17.01 p<0.001). On Cox proportional-hazards multivariate analysis incorporating significant clinical and echocardiographic predictors, a high EchoScore was the strongest independent predictor of all-cause mortality (HR 6.44 95%CI 2.94-14.01 p<0.001), and the addition of EchoScore resulted in greater increment in model power compared to addition of LVEF (model χ2 56.29 vs 44.71 p<0.001, Harrell's C values 0.83 vs 0.79). CONCLUSIONS: A composite echocardiographic score composed of prognostically validated measures of LV size, geometry, and function is superior to LVEF alone for predicting survival following MI.

Determinants of Diastolic Dysfunction Following Myocardial Infarction: Evidence for Causation Beyond Infarct Size.

BACKGROUND: The determinants of severe diastolic dysfunction (DD) following myocardial infarction (MI) are not well defined. This study sought to define the determinants of severe DD (restrictive mitral inflow pattern on Doppler echocardiography [RFP]) in patients with a first-ever MI, with particular emphasis on the impact of infarct size. METHODS: Retrospective single-centre study including consecutive patients admitted to a tertiary referral centre with a first-ever non-ST-elevation-MI (NSTEMI) or ST-elevation-MI (STEMI) (n=477). Peak troponin-I (Peak-TnI) was used as the principal measure of infarct size, whilst left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and wall motion score index (WMSI) were regarded as surrogate measures. Echocardiography was performed within 24 hours of admission for all patients. RFP was defined as E/A ratio >2.0 or E/A ratio >1.5 and E-wave deceleration time <140 ms. RESULTS: A total of 69 patients (14.5%) had RFP. Peak-TnI levels were higher in the RFP group (32.6±32.7 versus 16.9±25.2 µg/L, p<0.001). In sequential multivariable models incorporating significant clinical, angiographic and left ventricular (LV) size-related variables, Peak-TnI (OR 1.98, p=0.001), WMSI (OR 2.34, p=0.048) and LVEF (OR 0.97, p=0.044) were independent predictors of RFP. Presence of diabetes was also an independent predictor in all the models constructed. When patients were stratified according to an LVEF of 50%, 39% of RFP patients had a preserved LVEF (RFP/preserved EF group), and these patients had lower Peak-TnI levels compared to the RFP/reduced EF group (14.4±18.7 vs 44.5±35.5 µg/L). CONCLUSIONS: Whilst infarct size is a major determinant of severe diastolic dysfunction after MI, a significant subset of patients develop severe diastolic dysfunction despite a small infarct size and preserved LVEF, highlighting that other factors such as pre-existing diastolic dysfunction due to risk factors such as diabetes have an important role in causation.

Accuracy of Cardiac Nurse Acquired and Measured Three-Dimensional Echocardiographic Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction: Comparison to Echosonographer.

BACKGROUND: Three-dimensional echocardiography (3D-Echo) performed by novice health care staff to measure left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) could allow cost-effective screening and monitoring for left ventricular systolic dysfunction (LVSD) prior to the development of heart failure. The aim of this study was to determine feasibility and accuracy of cardiac nurses (after completing focussed training) independently acquiring 3D-Echo images, and measuring LVEF using semi-automated software when compared to an echosonographer. METHODS: One echosonographer and three cardiac nurses acquired 3D-Echo images on 73 patients (62 ± 16 years, 62% male) with good image quality, and subsequently measured LVEF using a semi-automated algorithm. RESULTS: Overall feasibility was 89% with the three nurses successfully acquiring 3D-Echo images suitable for LVEF assessment in 65 of the 73 patients. High accuracy (r = 0.82; p < 0.0001) with minimal bias (+0.1, -10.6 to +10.8 limits of agreement; p = 0.91) was observed comparing the nurses to the echosonographer for measuring LVEF. Individual nurses demonstrated high feasibility (86%-92%), accuracy (r = 0.83-0.87; all p < 0.0001) and intra-observer reproducibility (r = 0.96-0.97; all p < 0.0001), with good inter-observer consistency in accuracy compared to the echosonographer (one-way analysis of variance p = 0.559). CONCLUSIONS: We have demonstrated that, following a focussed training protocol, it was feasible for cardiac nurses to acquire 3D-Echo images of sufficient image quality to allow measurement of LVEF using a semi-automated algorithm, with comparable accuracy and intra-observer variability to an expert echosonographer. This could potentially allow the broader application of echocardiography to screen for LVSD in high-risk cohorts.

New Diastology Guidelines: Evolution, Validation and Impact on Clinical Practice.

The 2016 American Society of Echocardiography/European Association of Echocardiography (ASE/EACVI) guidelines on the assessment of diastolic function sought to simplify the assessment of diastolic function by recommending a streamlined, stepped approach with a focus on four key variables. Haemodynamic validation using simultaneous cardiac catheterisation and echocardiographic assessment of diastolic function have shown robust prediction of left ventricular filling pressure (LVFP) using the streamlined 2016 algorithms, with favourable comparisons to the 2009 guidelines. Similarly, prognostic validation data demonstrates that the 2016 algorithms are easier to implement in clinical practice, have superior inter-observer reliability across a broad range of observer experience, and are better at predicting clinical outcomes. Furthermore, published data show improved classification of clinical heart failure patients. However, increased specificity of the updated 2016 guidelines results in a lower prevalence of diastolic dysfunction compared to the 2009 recommendations. Further refinement of guidelines for the identification and diagnosis of diastolic dysfunction is possible through incorporation of new diastolic parameters.

Negative predictive value of dobutamine stress echocardiography for perioperative risk stratification in patients with cardiac risk factors and reduced exercise capacity undergoing non-cardiac surgery.

BACKGROUND: Guidelines recommend functional testing for myocardial ischaemia in the perioperative setting in patients with greater than one recognised cardiac risk factor and self-reported reduced exercise capacity. AIM: To determine the clinical utility of dobutamine stress echocardiography (DSE) for perioperative risk stratification in patients undergoing major non-cardiac surgery. METHODS: Data on 79 consecutive patients undergoing DSE for perioperative risk stratification at a single centre were retrospectively reviewed to determine rates of major adverse cardiac events (MACE) during the index hospitalisation and 30 days post-discharge. Echocardiography and outcome data were obtained through a folder audit and echolab database. RESULTS: Out of the 79 DSE performed for perioperative risk stratification, 11 (14%) were positive (DSE +ve) and 68 (86%) were negative (DSE -ve). Management in the DSE +ve group included medical optimisation without invasive intervention (n = 7(64%)), diagnostic coronary angiography (n = 3(27%)) and coronary artery bypass graft (n = 1(9%)). None of the patients underwent percutaneous coronary intervention preoperatively. Perioperative MACE in the DSE +ve group was 36% compared to 4% in the DSE-ve group (P = 0.006). DSE +ve was a powerful predictor of perioperative inpatient MACE (OR 12.4, 95% CI 2.3-67, P = 0.003). The positive predictive value of DSE +ve status was 36%, whereas the negative predictive value of DSE-ve status for perioperative MACE was 96%. CONCLUSION: DSE for perioperative risk stratification had a high clinical utility in patients undergoing major non-cardiac surgery. In particular, a normal DSE had a high negative predictive value for perioperative MACE.

Evaluation of training nurses to perform semi-automated three-dimensional left ventricular ejection fraction using a customised workstation-based training protocol.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: We aimed to determine the feasibility of training cardiac nurses to evaluate left ventricular function utilising a semi-automated, workstation-based protocol on three dimensional echocardiography images. BACKGROUND: Assessment of left ventricular function by nurses is an attractive concept. Recent developments in three dimensional echocardiography coupled with border detection assistance have reduced inter- and intra-observer variability and analysis time. This could allow abbreviated training of nurses to assess cardiac function. DESIGN: A comparative, diagnostic accuracy study evaluating left ventricular ejection fraction assessment utilising a semi-automated, workstation-based protocol performed by echocardiography-naïve nurses on previously acquired three dimensional echocardiography images. METHODS: Nine cardiac nurses underwent two brief lectures about cardiac anatomy, physiology and three dimensional left ventricular ejection fraction assessment, before a hands-on demonstration in 20 cases. We then selected 50 cases from our three dimensional echocardiography library based on optimal image quality with a broad range of left ventricular ejection fractions, which was quantified by two experienced sonographers and the average used as the comparator for the nurses. Nurses independently measured three dimensional left ventricular ejection fraction using the Auto lvq package with semi-automated border detection. RESULTS: The left ventricular ejection fraction range was 25-72% (70% with a left ventricular ejection fraction <55%). All nurses showed excellent agreement with the sonographers. Minimal intra-observer variability was noted on both short-term (same day) and long-term (>2 weeks later) retest. CONCLUSIONS: It is feasible to train nurses to measure left ventricular ejection fraction utilising a semi-automated, workstation-based protocol on previously acquired three dimensional echocardiography images. Further study is needed to determine the feasibility of training nurses to acquire three dimensional echocardiography images on real-world patients to measure left ventricular ejection fraction. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Nurse-performed evaluation of left ventricular function could facilitate the broader application of echocardiography to allow cost-effective screening and monitoring for left ventricular dysfunction in high-risk populations.

Serial Doppler echocardiographic assessment of diastolic dysfunction during acute myocardial infarction.

OBJECTIVES: We performed serial Doppler echocardiography in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) to describe the temporal changes in Doppler parameters following STEMI. BACKGROUND: Data on comprehensive Doppler assessment of diastolic dysfunction following STEMI, incorporating tissue Doppler imaging (TDI), are lacking. Severe diastolic dysfunction in stable patients usually manifests as a restrictive mitral filling pattern (RFP), reduced TDI-derived annular velocities (E'), and elevated E/E' ratios >15. METHODS: Twenty-eight patients (19 males, mean age 60 ± 10 years) with a first-ever STEMI who underwent PCI were prospectively assessed with echocardiography and invasive left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) measurements prior to PCI. Repeat echocardiograms were performed at day 3 and 12 months. RESULTS: During STEMI: (i) LVEDP was significantly elevated but decreased post revascularization (26.1 ± 6.2 vs. 20.8 ± 5.2 mmHg, P = 0.002); (ii) the predominant mitral inflow pattern was an abnormal relaxation pattern (n = 14 [50%]), whereas restrictive filling pattern was only observed in seven (25%) patients; (iii) E' velocities were only modestly reduced (septal E' 7.4 ± 2.2 cm/sec, lateral E' 9.6 ± 2.2 cm/sec), and (iv) a septal E/E'ratio >15 seen in only one patient, whereas all other patients had an E/E' ratio of 8-15. Serial TDI showed that E'velocity decreased at day 3 (septal E' 7.4 ± 2.1 cm/sec vs. 5.9 ± 1.6 cm/sec, P = 0.002) and remained reduced at 1 year follow-up, suggesting persistence of diastolic dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: During STEMI, contrary to findings in stable patients, the predominant Doppler manifestation of the severe diastolic dysfunction and elevated LVEDP was an abnormal relaxation mitral inflow pattern accompanied by E/E' ratios of 8-15. Serial Doppler assessment suggests incomplete diastolic recovery following STEMI.

Selective drug-eluting stent implantation for high-risk patients with acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction: rationale and safety.

BACKGROUND: A selective policy of drug-eluting stent (DES) implantation in ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients at high risk of restenosis may maximize the benefit from restenosis reduction and minimize risk from late stent thrombosis (LaST). OBJECTIVES: We sought to prospectively determine the safety of selective DES implantation for long lesions (>20 mm), small vessels (<2.5 mm) and diabetic patients in patients with STEMI using a prospective single-center registry. METHODS: A total of 252 patients who underwent primary PCI between January 2005 and December 2006 were included: 126 consecutive patients receiving DES were compared with 126 age-, sex-, and vessel-matched controls with STEMI who received bare-metal stents. Composite major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) (death, AMI, and target vessel revascularization) were used as the primary outcome measure. RESULTS: Baseline clinical and angiographic characteristics and outcomes were similar between groups except for the prespecified diabetes, lesion length, and maximum stent diameter. Long-term outcomes at a median follow up of 34 ± 6 months showed significant reductions in reinfarction (2% vs. 11%, P = 0.03), target vessel revascularization (TVR) (10% vs. 24%, P = 0.02), and composite MACE (18% vs. 31%, P = 0.03) with DES, with no excess of death (9% vs. 7%, P = NS) or LaST (2% vs. 1%, P = NS). In a Cox multivariate model, clopidogrel cessation at long-term follow-up was the most powerful predictor of hierarchical MACE (HR: 5.165; 95%CI: 2.019-13.150, P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Selective DES implantation in patients with high-risk STEMI appears safe, and exposes fewer patients to the risk of LaST. A randomized comparison of selective versus routine DES use in patients with STEMI should be considered.

Usefulness of right ventricular myocardial strain in assessment of response to thrombolytic therapy in acute pulmonary embolism.

Acute pulmonary embolism (PE) is a life-threatening illness that is an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Patients with extensive emboli usually have associated right ventricular (RV) dysfunction. With anticoagulation therapy, RV function usually returns to normal. In patients with massive and submassive PE, echocardiography may directly visualize the embolus or more commonly provide evidence of its haemodynamic sequelae. The McConnell's sign involving sparing of RV apical contraction coupled with akinesia of the RV free wall has previously been reported in patients with acute PE. We present a case of a patient who had massive acute PE with severe RV systolic dysfunction that was demonstrated with both conventional Doppler and strain imaging. Strain imaging was also able to demonstrate the rapid improvement of RV function in response to thrombolytic therapy.

Drug-eluting stents for the treatment of acute myocardial infarction: the view to the HORIZONS.

Drug-eluting stents (DES) offer an attractive option for the treatment of acute thrombotic lesions during acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) due to their ability to inhibit restenosis. Several randomised trials have demonstrated the efficacy of DES in reducing target vessel revascularisation (TVR) in this setting. However, several registries of real-world patients receiving DES for STEMI have raised long-term safety concerns about DES use in this patient subset. Given the inherent limitations of registry data, this issue is likely to remain unresolved until further data is made available from large-scale ongoing trials with long-term follow-up such as the HORIZONS-AMI trial.

Hemodynamic Validation of the E/e' Ratio as a Measure of Left Ventricular Filling Pressure in Patients With Non-ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction.

The E/e' ratio has an established role in the assessment of left ventricular filling pressure (LVFP) in stable patients, but its accuracy in acute myocardial ischemia is less well established. The aim of this study was to validate the relation between the E/e' ratio and invasively measured LVFP in patients with non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). A total of 120 unselected patients with NSTEMI underwent cardiac catheterization with measurement of left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP; elevated ≥15 mm Hg) and Doppler echocardiography with either simultaneous (n = 30) or same-day (n = 90) measurement of E/e'. Patients were aged 64.1 ± 11.8 years, 72% were male and mean left ventricular ejection fraction was 48.0 ± 20.9%. Septal, lateral, and average E/e' ratios all showed a significant correlation with LVEDP (Pearson's r: 0.42, 0.43, 0.48, respectively [all p <0.001]). Receiver operating characteristics curves showed an area under the curve of 0.72, 0.72, and 0.75 (all p <0.001) for septal, lateral, and average E/e', respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, positive (PPV), and negative (NPV) predictive values for the guideline-recommended threshold of average E/e' >14 for elevated LVEDP was 27%, 93%, 79%, and 44%, respectively. Utilizing lower E/e' boundaries of 6, 7, and 8 for lateral, average, and medial E/e', respectively, improved the NPV to ≥80% for each parameter. In conclusion, the E/e' ratio is a robust measure of LVFP during acute NSTEMI using upper and lower thresholds to achieve a high PPV and NPV, respectively, with the use of adjunctive guideline-recommend measures required in patients with nonconclusive E/e'.

Primary percutaneous coronary intervention for acute myocardial infarction caused by unprotected left main stem thrombosis.

BACKGROUND: There is a paucity of data on outcomes in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) caused by left main stem (LMS) thrombosis. OBJECTIVES: We sought to determine (i) the clinical features, (ii) correlates of early mortality, and (iii) long-term outcomes in contemporary patients undergoing primary PCI for unprotected LMS thrombosis. METHODS: From 1,115 consecutive primary PCI cases at two tertiary referral centers between January 2004 and September 2007, 28 cases (2.5%) with unprotected LMS culprit lesions were identified. Data were obtained from review of institutional databases, folder audit, telephone survey of patients, and independent review of angiograms. RESULTS: The mean age of patients was 68 +/- 14 years. Males comprised 76%, and 21% had diabetes. Significant morbidity was noted at presentation: shock in 18 (62%), pulmonary oedema in 15 (52%), and cardiac arrest in 10 (35%) patients, respectively. Lesion location was ostial in 7 (25%), body in 8 (29%), and distal in 13 (46%) patients, respectively. Angiographic success was achieved in 24 patients (83%). Stents were deployed in 27 patients (96%); drug-eluting stents in 11 patients (39%). No patient required in-hospital CABG. Cumulative in-hospital mortality was 36%. Univariate predictors of in-hospital mortality included shock, preceding cardiac arrest, and angiographic failure (all P < 0.05). At a mean follow-up of 26 +/- 12 months in hospital survivors, there were two TVR (elective CABGs), one death, and no reinfarctions. CONCLUSION: We report a lower than previously reported in-hospital mortality of 36% in contemporary patients undergoing primary PCI for unprotected LMS thrombosis. Long-term outcomes in hospital survivors appear favorable.

Echocardiographic predictors of all-cause mortality in patients with left ventricular ejection fraction >35%: Value of guideline based assessment of diastolic dysfunction.

BACKGROUND: Recent data suggests that the majority of cardiac deaths in patients with heart failure occur in patients with a left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) >35%. This study sought to determine the value of guideline based assessment of diastolic dysfunction in predicting all-cause mortality in patients with a first-ever myocardial infarction (MI) with an LVEF >35%. METHODS: A retrospective single centre study involving 383 patients with a first-ever MI (STEMI or NSTEMI) with LVEF >35% was performed. Clinical, angiographic and echocardiographic data were obtained from prospectively maintained institutional databases. Outcomes data were obtained from national death registry. Echocardiography was performed early post-admission for all patients. Significant diastolic dysfunction (DD) was defined was grade 2/3 diastolic dysfunction according to current American Society of Echocardiography/European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging guidelines. RESULTS: At a median follow up of 2 years, there were 32 deaths. On Cox proportional hazards multivariate analysis incorporating significant clinical variables (age, chronic kidney disease and extent of coronary artery disease), significant DD (HR 2.57, 95%CI 1.16-5.68, p = 0.020) and left ventricular end-diastolic volume index (HR 1.03, 1.04-1.07, p = 0.021) were the only independent echocardiographic predictors of all-cause mortality. Intermodel comparisons using model χ2 and Harrel's-C confirmed incremental value of DD. In the subgroup with LVEF 36-55% (n = 176), significant DD was the only independent echocardiographic predictor (HR 3.56, 95%CI 2.46-9.09, p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of significant DD identifies patients with LVEF >35% following MI who are at a higher risk of all-cause mortality, and who may benefit from further risk stratification and treatment.

Relation of Left Atrial Volumes in Patients With Myocardial Infarction to Left Ventricular Filling Pressures and Outcomes.

The inter-relationships between minimal and maximal left atrial volume index (LAVI), left ventricular filling pressures and survival have not been well studied. This study aimed to compare LAVImin with LAVImax with respect to (1) relative prognostic value, and (2) correlation with left ventricular end-diastolic pressures (LVEDP), in patients with myocardial infarction (MI). A retrospective study involving consecutive patients with a first-ever MI (n = 419) was undertaken. LAVIs were determined using Simpson's biplane method from 2D echocardiography performed the day after admission. LAVmin ≥ 18 mls/m2 and LAVImax ≥ 34 mls/m2 were considered enlarged. The primary end point was composite major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) (death/MI/heart failure). Correlation between LVEDP and LAVI was assessed in 120 patients who underwent echocardiography and cardiac catheterization either simultaneously (n = 30) or same-day (n = 90). At a median follow-up of 24 months, there were 61 MACE events. On Cox proportional hazards multivariate analysis incorporating significant clinical predictors and LVEF, whereas both LAVImin ≥ 18 mls/m2 (hazard ratio 3.15 [95% confidence interval 1.70 to 5.54], p <0.001) and LAVImax ≥ 34 mls/m2 (hazard ratio 1.79 [95% confidence interval 1.02 to 3.14], p = 0.041) were independent predictors of MACE, LAVImin showed a stronger association. Intermodel comparisons of the model chi-square and Harrell's C-statistic confirmed better prognostication with LAVImin. In the invasive cohort, because LAVImin and LAVImax had a similar correlation with LVEDP ≥ 15 mm Hg (r = 0.41 [p <0.001] vs r = 0.42 [p <0.001]), LAVmin ≥ 18 mls/m2 had a greater sensitivity for LVEDP ≥ 15 mm Hg than LAVImax ≥ 34 mls/m2 (sensitivity 59.4% vs 34.4%). In conclusion, utilizing thresholds of ≥18 and ≥34 mls/m2, respectively, LAVImin was a better predictor of survival than LAVImax, the pathophysiologic basis of which relates to a better sensitivity for elevated left ventricular filling pressures with LAVImin at these thresholds. There may be incremental clinical value in measuring LAVImin alongside LAVImax.

Clinical and electrocardiographic correlates of normal coronary angiography in patients referred for primary percutaneous coronary intervention.

This study sought to determine the prevalence as well as clinical and electrocardiographic correlates of patients referred for primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) who had angiographically normal coronary arteries. Data for 690 consecutive patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) referred for primary PCI within a metropolitan area health service were reviewed. Characteristics of patients with angiographically normal coronary arteries (n = 87; 13%) were compared with patients with angiographically shown culprit lesions (control group; n = 594). Nine patients with significant coronary disease, but no identifiable culprit lesion, were excluded. Electrocardiograms (ECGs) from both groups were reviewed by 2 cardiologists blinded to angiographic findings. Patients in the normal coronaries group were younger and had fewer risk factors. On expert review of ECGs, 55% of patients in the normal coronaries group had ST-elevation criteria for STEMI (vs 93% in the control group; p <0.001), but the ECG was considered consistent with a diagnosis of STEMI by both observers in only 33% (vs 92% in the control group; p <0.001). Left branch bundle block independently correlated with normal coronary arteries on multivariate analysis (odds ratio for STEMI 0.016, 95% confidence interval 0.004 to 0.064, p <0.001). The discharge diagnosis in the normal coronaries group was predominantly pericarditis (n = 72; 83%). In conclusion, the prevalence of angiographically normal coronary arteries in patients referred for primary PCI was 13%. Electrocardiographic correlation suggested that this can be reduced by adherence to conventional electrocardiographic criteria for STEMI diagnosis and review of ECGs by experienced clinicians.

Diastolic stress echocardiography: from basic principles to clinical applications.

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) looms as a major public heart challenge with increasing prevalence due to an ageing population. Diagnosis can be challenging due to non-specific symptomatology, low natriuretic peptide levels and equivocal diastology on resting echocardiography. Diastolic stress echocardiography represents a non-invasive option to refining the diagnosis in this subset of patients. Diastolic responses to exercise are most commonly measured with a non-invasive measure of left ventricular filling pressures (LVFP) estimated by the ratio of the early mitral inflow wave to early diastolic tissue velocity (E/e' ratio). This is measured pre- and post-exercise , and is highly feasible. An elevation of exercise E/e' >15 is classified as an abnormal response as per current guidelines. An alternative measure of exercise-related diastolic performance, the Diastolic Functional Reserve Index has also been proposed, but has not been as well studied as exercise E/e'. A number of studies have validated exercise E/e' as a measure of LVFP against invasively measured LVFP using simultaneous echocardiography-catheterisation studies. The independent prognostic value of exercise E/e' has also been well delineated in a number of studies. While diastolic stress echocardiography can be considered for all patients with suspected HFpEF, it is of particular value in patients with normal or equivocal diastolic indices on resting echocardiography.

Eustachian valve endocarditis: Case report and literature review.

In the intravenous drug user (IVDU) population, infected right-sided valvular lesions are common, and this has been well described in the literature. The Eustachian valve (also known as the valve of the inferior vena cava) is another valve in close proximity to the tricuspid valve, which can, in rare cases, be the focus of infection. Eustachian valve endocarditis may be an under-recognised complication of Staphylococcus bacteraemia in IVDU population, often only identified by transesophageal imaging. We present a case of tricuspid valve endocarditis in an IVDU with secondary seeding on the Eustachian valve, and an accompanying literature review on this rare topic.