Structure-charge relationship - the case of hematite (001).

We present a multidisciplinary study on the hematite (001)-aqueous solution interface, in particular the relationship between surface structure (studied via surface diffraction in a humid atmosphere) and the macroscopic charging (studied via surface- and zeta-potential measurements in electrolyte solutions as a function of pH). Upon aging in water changes in the surface structure are observed, that are accompanied by drastic changes in the zeta-potential. Surprisingly the surface potential is not accordingly affected. We interpret our results by increasing hydration of the surface with time and enhanced reactivity of singly-coordinated hydroxyl groups that cause the isoelectric point of the surface to shift to values that are reminiscent of those typically reported for hematite particles. In its initial stages after preparation the hematite surface is very flat and only weakly hydrated. Our model links the entailing weak water structure with the observed low isoelectric point reminiscent of hydrophobic surfaces. The absence of an aging effect on the surface potential vs. pH curves is interpreted as domination of the surface potential by the doubly coordinated hydroxyls, which are present on both surfaces.

Potentiometric and electrokinetic signatures of iron(II) interactions with (α,γ)-Fe2O3.

The electrochemical signatures of Fe(II) interactions with iron(III) oxides are poorly understood, despite their importance in controlling the amount of mobilized iron. Here, we report the potentiometric titration of α,γ-Fe2O3 oxides exposed to Fe(II) ions. We monitored in situ surface and ζ potentials, the ratio of mobilized ferric to ferrous, and the periodically analyzed nanoparticle crystal structure using X-ray diffraction. Electrokinetic potential reveals weak but still noticeable specific sorption of Fe(II) to the oxide surface under acidic conditions, and pronounced adsorption under alkaline conditions that results in a surface potential reversal. By monitoring the aqueous iron(II/III) fraction, we found that the addition of Fe(II) ions produces platinum electrode response consistent with the iron solubility-activity curve. Although, XRD analysis showed no evidence of γ-Fe2O3 transformations along the titration pathway despite iron cycling between aqueous and solid reservoirs, the magnetite formation cannot be ruled out.

Measurement of the surface potential of individual crystal planes of hematite.

A device for measuring surface potentials of individual crystal planes was constructed. The surface potentials of the (0 1 2), (1 0 -2), (1 1 3), and (1 1 -3) crystal planes of hematite were measured as a function of pH at different sodium nitrate concentrations. Results of measurement enabled differentiation between the planes, showing agreement with the surface potentials obtained with a single-crystal hematite electrode. At low ionic strength there was no significant difference in potential between the crystal planes, whereas at relatively high ionic strength the difference was noticeable. In the absence of counterion association, but also in the case of their symmetric association taking place, point of zero potential (pH(pzp)) coincides with other zero points, i.e., with the isolectric point (pH(iep)) and the point of zero charge (pH(pzc)). If the counterion affinities toward association are not equal, the pH(pzp) is shifted in the same directions as the pH(pzc). The shift in the point of zero potential to the basic region was more pronounced for the (1 1 -3) plane than for the (1 0 -2) one, indicating a higher affinity of anions for association with oppositely charged surface groups compared to cations. It was demonstrated that measurements of surface potentials of individual crystal planes could help to better understand the equilibrium at solid/liquid interfaces.

Determination of surface potentials from the electrode potentials of a single-crystal electrode.

Determination of surface potentials Psi0 at the metal oxide/aqueous solution interface from measured electrode potentials of a metal oxide single-crystal electrode (SCrE) is described. The proposed method is based on the surface complexation model and evaluates the surface potential at the isoelectric point, i.e., at pHiep. This value is used for calculation of Psi0 values from the measured electrode potentials. Both 1-pK and 2-pK models produced the same result so that the procedure does not depend on the assumed mechanism of the surface charging. It is proposed to determine the pristine point of zero charge pHeln and the isoelectric point pHiep, and use these data to set the scale of surface potentials. The value of pHeln can be obtained at a sufficiently low ionic strength where pHpzc coincides with pHiep. The method is demonstrated on the example of the anatase single-crystal electrode. From the shifts of pHiep and pHpzc with respect to the pristine point of zero charge pHeln it was concluded that Cl- ions exhibit higher affinity for association with positively charged surface groups than ClO-4 ions. Also, preferential surface association of Na+ cations compared to both anions was detected. The slopes of the Psi0(pH) functions were found to be significantly lower in magnitude with respect to the Nernst equation, which is due to the high degree of counterion association at the surface caused by their relatively high concentration.

Surface potential of hematite in aqueous electrolyte solution: hysteresis and equilibration at the interface.

Electrostatic potential at the inner plane of the hematite aqueous interface, i.e., surface potential, was measured by means of a single-crystal hematite electrode. Acidic solutions were titrated with base and then back-titrated with acid. Surface potentials were evaluated from electrode potentials by setting the zero value at the isoelectric point. In the case of fast titrations the equilibration time was approximately 10 min, and significant hysteresis was obtained, more pronounced at higher electrolyte concentrations. Hysteresis disappeared in slow titration runs when the equilibration time was extended up to 120 min, and also when ultrasound was applied. Hysteresis was observed in the pH region close to neutrality, where the concentrations of potential-determining H+ and OH- ions are low. Equilibration was fast in acidic and basic regions. These results are explained on the basis of the kinetics of surface reactions, supported by the following rate of single-crystal electrode equilibration. It is concluded that the equilibration rate at the interface is specific for a given system and is not a general phenomenon. As several systems may undergo fast equilibration, such data may be regarded as equilibrium data and interpreted by the surface complexation model. In other cases, one should perform kinetic tests and apply extended equilibration times.

Surface and zeta-potentials of silver halide single crystals: pH-dependence in comparison to particle systems.

We have carried out surface and zeta-potential measurements on AgCl and AgBr single crystals. As for particle systems we find that, surprisingly and previously unnoted, the zeta-potential exhibits pH-dependence, while the surface potential does not. A possible interpretation of these observations is the involvement of water ions in the interfacial equilibria and in particular, stronger affinity of the hydroxide ion compared to the proton. The pH-dependence of the zeta-potential can be suppressed at sufficiently high silver concentrations, which agrees with previous measurements in particle systems where no pH-dependence was found at high halide ion concentrations. The results suggest a subtle interplay between the surface potential determining the halide and silver ion concentrations, and the water ions. Whenever the charge due to the halide and silver ions is sufficiently high, the influence of the proton/hydroxide ion on the zeta-potential vanishes. This might be related to the water structuring at the relevant interfaces which should be strongly affected by the surface potential. Another interesting observation is accentuation of the assumed water ion effect on the zeta-potential at the flat single crystal surfaces compared to the corresponding silver halide colloids. Previous generic MD simulations have indeed predicted that hydroxide ion adsorption is accentuated on flat/rigid surfaces. A thermodynamic model for AgI single crystals was developed to describe the combined effects of iodide, silver and water ions, based on two independently previously published models for AgI (that only consider constituent and background electrolyte ions) and inert surfaces (that only consider water and background electrolyte ions). The combined model correctly predicts all the experimentally observed trends.

pH and the surface tension of water.

Despite the strong adsorption of hydroxide ions, the surface tension of water is almost independent of pH between pH 1 and 13 when the pH is adjusted by addition of HCl or NaOH. This is consistent with the Gibbs adsorption isotherm which measures the surface excess of all species in the double layer, if hydronium ions and hydroxide ions are adsorbed and sodium and chloride ions are not. The surface tension becomes pH dependent around pH 7 in millimolar NaCl or KCl solutions, for now sodium ions can replace hydronium ions as counterions to the adsorbed hydroxide ions.

Point of zero potential of single-crystal electrode/inert electrolyte interface.

Most of the environmentally important processes occur at the specific hydrated mineral faces. Their rates and mechanisms are in part controlled by the interfacial electrostatics, which can be quantitatively described by the point of zero potential (PZP). Unfortunately, the PZP value of specific crystal face is very difficult to be experimentally determined. Here we show that PZP can be extracted from a single-crystal electrode potentiometric titration, assuming the stable electrochemical cell resistivity and lack of specific electrolyte ions sorption. Our method is based on determining a common intersection point of the electrochemical cell electromotive force at various ionic strengths, and it is illustrated for a few selected surfaces of rutile, hematite, silver chloride, and bromide monocrystals. In the case of metal oxides, we have observed the higher PZP values than those theoretically predicted using the MultiSite Complexation Model (MUSIC), that is, 8.4 for (001) hematite (MUSIC-predicted ~6), 8.7 for (110) rutile (MUSIC-predicted ~6), and about 7 for (001) rutile (MUSIC-predicted 6.6). In the case of silver halides, the order of estimated PZP values (6.4 for AgCl<6.5 for AgBr) agrees well with sequence estimated from the silver halide solubility products; however, the halide anions (Cl(-), Br(-)) are attracted toward surface much stronger than the Ag(+) cations. The observed PZPs sequence and strong anions affinity toward silver halide surface can be correlated with ions hydration energies. Presented approach is the complementary one to the hysteresis method reported previously [P. Zarzycki, S. Chatman, T. Preocanin, K.M. Rosso, Langmuir 27 (2011) 7986-7990]. A unique experimental characterization of specific crystal faces provided by these two methods is essential in deeper understanding of environmentally important processes, including migration of heavy and radioactive ions in soils and groundwaters.

Influence of interfacial water layer on surface properties of silver halides: effect of pH on the isoelectric point.

The hypothesis that pH dependent charge of interfacial water affects electrokinetic charge and electrokinetic potential of hydrophobic colloids, but not the (inner) surface potential was tested. It was found that isoelectric points of silver chloride, bromide and iodide shift to the higher pAg values in the acidic solutions, but that surface potential did not depend on pH. Isoelectric points of water at inert surfaces lie in the range 2

Charging of silver bromide aqueous interface: Evaluation of enthalpy and entropy of interfacial reactions from surface potential data.

Dependence of surface potential (electrostatic potential at the inner Helmholtz plane, Ψ(0)) at the silver bromide aqueous electrolyte interface was measured as a function of the activities of Br(-) and Ag(+) by using a single crystal silver bromide electrode (SCr-AgBr). Absolute values of surface potentials were obtained from electrode potentials of SCr-AgBr and isoelectric points. Measurements were performed at different temperatures in the range from 10 to 50°C. Corresponding equilibrium constants of interfacial reactions were obtained using the surface complexation model and interpreted via the van't Hoff equation. As a result of the interpretation for the binding of bromide ions leading to a negative surface charge, the thermodynamic parameters obtained were Δ(n)H(∘)=-33kJmol(-1) and Δ(n)S(∘)=-31Jmol(-1)K(-1); and for the binding of silver ions leading to a positive surface charge, Δ(p)H(∘)=-72kJmol(-1) and Δ(p)S(∘)=-196Jmol(-1)K(-1). Association of counterions (CI) with oppositely charged surface sites partially compensates the surface charge. Assuming approximately the same affinities for anions (NO(3)(-)) and cations (K(+)) thermodynamic parameters for their binding were obtained as Δ(CI)H(∘)≈7kJmol(-1) and Δ(CI)S(∘)≈105Jmol(-1)K(-1).

Charging of silver bromide aqueous interface: evaluation of interfacial equilibrium constants from surface potential data.

A single crystal silver bromide electrode (SCr-AgBr) was used to measure the inner surface potential (Ψ(0)) at the silver bromide aqueous electrolyte interface as a function of the activities of Br(-) and Ag(+). Absolute values of the surface potential were calculated from electrode potentials of SCr-AgBr using the value of point of zero charge (pBr(pzc)=6.9 [H.A. Hoyen, R.M. Cole, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 41 (1972) 93.]) as the value of point of zero potential. Measurements were performed in potassium nitrate aqueous solutions. The Ψ(0)(pBr) function was linear and slightly dependent on the ionic strength. The reduction values of the slope with respect to the Nernst equation, expressed by the α coefficient, were 0.880,0.935, and 0.950 at ionic strengths of 10(-4), 10(-3), and 10(-2) mol dm(-3), respectively. The results were successfully interpreted by employing the surface complexation model, developed originally for metal oxides and adapted for silver halides. The thermodynamic ("intrinsic") equilibrium constants for binding of bromide (K(n)(∘)) and silver (K(p)(∘)) ions on the corresponding sites at the silver bromide surface were evaluated as lgK(n)(∘)=3.98; lgK(p)(∘)=2.48. Symmetrical counterion surface association was assumed and equilibrium constants were obtained as lgK(NO(3)(-))(∘)=lgK(K(+))(∘)=4.30.

Differences between reversible (self-association) and irreversible aggregation of rHuG-CSF in carbohydrate and polyol formulations.

Severe immunogenic and other debilitating human disorders potentially induced by protein aggregates have brought this phenomenon into the focus of biopharmaceutical science over the past decade. Depending on its driving forces, the process induced in the model protein rHuG-CSF may be either reversible or irreversible, resulting in the assembly of self-associated protein species or irreversible aggregates of various final morphologies. The aim of our work was to investigate the correlation between irreversible and reversible aggregation and the protective effect of non-specific formulation stabilisers, selected from the group of carbohydrates and polyols including trehalose, xylitol, cellobiitol, turanose, cellobiose, leucrose, lactitol, lyxose, and sorbitol, against both irreversible protein aggregation and reversible self-association processes of the rHuG-CSF. The formation of irreversible aggregates was thermally induced and evaluated using differential scanning calorimetry and size-exclusion chromatography. As opposed to the irreversible aggregation process, the process of self-association was induced by the agitation experiment by directly augmenting the protein solution contact surfaces. Absence of statistical connectivity between different stabilisers' ability to inhibit self-association or aggregation reactions indicates that these are two distinct physicochemical processes with different formulation stabilizing outcomes. Reaction mechanism of thermally induced aggregation observed in the study was in line with published literature data, while the reaction mechanism for self-association process was postulated. The postulate has been verified experimentally by isothermal calorimetry and agitation set of experiments conducted after size-exclusion chromatography and asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation separation of monomeric, dimeric, trimeric, oligomeric, and large self-associated forms detected on multi-angle light scattering, fluorescence, UV, and refractive index detectors. Besides defining the mechanism and kinetic of self-association in stabilized rHuG-CSF formulations, special attention was also paid to the shifts and ranks of the free energy of the aggregation or self-association transition states.

Evaluation of interfacial equilibrium constants from surface potential data: silver chloride aqueous interface.

A single crystal silver chloride electrode (SCr-AgCl) was used to measure the inner surface potential (Psi(0)) at the silver chloride aqueous electrolyte interface as a function of activity of Cl(-) ions as determined by the Ag/AgCl electrode. Absolute values of the surface potential were calculated from electrode potentials of SCr-AgCl using the value of point of zero charge (pCl(pzc)=5.2) as the value of point of zero potential. Measurements were performed in potassium nitrate aqueous solutions, as well as in the presence of Li, Na, Cs, Mg, and La nitrates. The Psi(0) (pCl) function was found to be linear within the experimental error and practically the same for all the examined electrolytes and almost independent of ionic strength. The reduction of the slope with respect to the Nernst equation, expressed by the alpha coefficient, was (0.88+/-0.01) at I(c)=10(-1) mol dm(-3), (0.87+/-0.01) at I(c)=10(-2) mol dm(-3), and (0.84+/-0.01) at I(c)=10(-3) mol dm(-3). The results were successfully interpreted by employing the surface complexation model developed originally for metal oxides and adapted for silver chloride. The standard ("intrinsic") equilibrium constants for the binding of chloride (K(o)(n)) and silver ions (K(o)(p)) on the corresponding sites at the silver chloride surface were evaluated as lg K(o)(n)=2.67+/-0.05; lg K(o)(p)=2.07+/-0.05. Counterion surface association equilibrium constants were also obtained as lg K(o)(NO3(-))=lg K(o)(K+)=274+/-0.05.

A macroscopic water structure based model for describing charging phenomena at inert hydrophobic surfaces in aqueous electrolyte solutions.

A simple general model framework for the charge development at hydrophobic surfaces in aqueous electrolyte solutions is proposed. It is based on the idea of enhanced autolysis of interfacial water triggered by a structured layer of water. The model is applied to experimental data for air, oil, diamond and Teflon aqueous interfaces and to the ice-water interface. The structure of the interfaces, as derived from sum frequency spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations, is used as a conceptual basis. The proposed model describes zeta potential data and supplementary macroscopic data well. The experimental zeta potentials used for the modelling of the different systems exhibit differences in magnitude. Streaming current measurements yield higher zeta potentials than conventional electrophoretic mobility measurements. This discrepancy in the data is reconciled in the resulting model parameters, such as the slip plane distance, s, an empirical parameter that allows the quantitative description of reported zeta potentials. Overall, the model parameters are consistent with similar work on other types of surfaces. Differences between the various surfaces studied in the present work can be explained by the difference in their properties, the different experimental techniques used and/or the diversity in data for nominally identical systems.

Measurement of surface potential at silver chloride aqueous interface with single-crystal AgCl electrode.

The surface potential at the silver chloride aqueous interface was measured by means of a single-crystal silver chloride electrode (SCr-AgCl). The measurements were conducted by titration of the KCl solution with AgNO3, and vice versa. The SCr-AgCl electrode potentials were converted to surface potentials psi(0) by setting zero at the point of zero charge at pCl = 5.2. The psi(0)(pCl) function was linear, with a slope 12% lower with respect to the Nernst equation. It was demonstrated that the surface potential at the silver halide aqueous interface could be interpreted by means of the surface complexation model, originally developed for metal oxides.