Expiratory airflow limitation in adults born extremely preterm: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Extreme preterm (EP) birth, denoting delivery before the onset of the third trimester, interrupts intrauterine development and causes significant early-life pulmonary trauma, thereby posing a lifelong risk to respiratory health. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate adult lung function following EP birth (gestational age <28 weeks); comparing forced expiratory volume in first second (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), and FEV1/FVC to reference values. Subgroup differences were explored based on timing of birth relative to surfactant use (1991) and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) status. Systematic searches were performed in Medline, EMBASE, Web of Science and Cochrane Central. Quality assessments were carried out using a modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for cohort studies. Sixteen studies encompassing 1036 EP-born adults were included, with 14 studies (n = 787) reporting data as %predicted, and 11 (n = 879) as z-score (not mutually exclusive). Overall mean [95 % confidence interval (CI)] %FEV1 was 85.30 (82.51; 88.09), %FVC was 94.33 (91.74; 96.91), and FEV1/FVC was 79.54 (77.71 to 81.38), all three with high heterogeneity. Overall mean (95 %CI) zFEV1 was -1.05 (-1.21; -0.90) and zFVC was. -0.45 (-0.59; -0.31), both with moderate heterogeneity. Subgroup analyses revealed no difference in FEV1 before versus after widespread use of surfactant, but more impairments after neonatal BPD. This meta-analysis revealed significant airflow limitation in EP-born adults, mostly explained by those with neonatal BPD. FEV1 was more reduced than FVC, and FEV1/FVC was at the lower limit of normal. Although at a group level, most adult EP-born individuals do not meet COPD criteria, these findings are concerning.

Diagnosis of vocal cord dysfunction/inducible laryngeal obstruction: An International Delphi Consensus Study.

BACKGROUND: Vocal cord dysfunction/inducible laryngeal obstruction (VCD/ILO) is characterized by breathing difficulties in association with excessive supraglottic or glottic laryngeal narrowing. The condition is common and can occur independently; however, it may also be comorbid with other disorders or mimic them. Presentations span multiple specialties and misdiagnosis or delayed diagnosis is commonplace. Group-consensus methods can efficiently generate internationally accepted diagnostic criteria and descriptions to increase clinical recognition, enhance clinical service availability, and catalyze research. OBJECTIVES: We sought to establish consensus-based diagnostic criteria and methods for VCD/ILO. METHODS: We performed a modified 2-round Delphi study between December 7, 2021, and March 14, 2022. The study was registered at ANZCTR (Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry; ACTRN12621001520820p). In round 1, experts provided open-ended statements that were categorized, deduplicated, and amended for clarity. These were presented to experts for agreement ranking in round 2, with consensus defined as ≥70% agreement. RESULTS: Both rounds were completed by 47 international experts. In round 1, 1102 qualitative responses were received. Of the 200 statements presented to experts across 2 rounds, 130 (65%) reached consensus. Results were discussed at 2 international subject-specific conferences in June 2022. Experts agreed on a diagnostic definition for VCD/ILO and endorsed the concept of VCD/ILO phenotypes and clinical descriptions. The panel agreed that laryngoscopy with provocation is the gold standard for diagnosis and that ≥50% laryngeal closure on inspiration or Maat grade ≥2 define abnormal laryngeal closure indicative of VCD/ILO. CONCLUSIONS: This Delphi study reached consensus on multiple aspects of VCD/ILO diagnosis and can inform clinical practice and facilitate research.

Tracking of lung function from 10 to 35 years after being born extremely preterm or with extremely low birth weight.

BACKGROUND: Lifelong pulmonary consequences of being born extremely preterm or with extremely low birth weight remain unknown. We aimed to describe lung function trajectories from 10 to 35 years of age for individuals born extremely preterm, and address potential cohort effects over a period that encompassed major changes in perinatal care. METHODS: We performed repeated spirometry in three population-based cohorts born at gestational age ≤28 weeks or with birth weight ≤1000 g during 1982-85, 1991-92 and 1999-2000, referred to as extremely preterm-born, and in term-born controls matched for age and gender. Examinations were performed at 10, 18, 25 and 35 years. Longitudinal data were analysed using mixed models regression, with the extremely preterm-born stratified by bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). RESULTS: We recruited 148/174 (85%) eligible extremely preterm-born and 138 term-born. Compared with term-born, the extremely preterm-born had lower z-scores for forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) at most assessments, the main exceptions were in the groups without BPD in the two youngest cohorts. FEV1 trajectories were largely parallel for the extremely preterm- and term-born, also during the period 25-35 years that includes the onset of the age-related decline in lung function. Extremely preterm-born had lower peak lung function than term-born, but z-FEV1 values improved for each consecutive decade of birth (p=0.009). More extremely preterm-than term-born fulfilled the spirometry criteria for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 44/148 (30%) vs 7/138 (5%), p<0.001. CONCLUSIONS: Lung function after extremely preterm birth tracked in parallel, but significantly below the trajectories of term-born from 10 to 35 years, including the incipient age-related decline from 25 to 35 years. The deficits versus term-born decreased with each decade of birth from 1980 to 2000.

Development of lung diffusion to adulthood following extremely preterm birth.

BACKGROUND: Gas exchange in extremely preterm (EP) infants must take place in fetal lungs. Childhood lung diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (D LCO) is reduced; however, longitudinal development has not been investigated. We describe the growth of D LCO and its subcomponents to adulthood in EP compared with term-born subjects. METHODS: Two area-based cohorts born at gestational age ≤28 weeks or birthweight ≤1000 g in 1982-1985 (n=48) and 1991-1992 (n=35) were examined twice, at ages 18 and 25 years and 10 and 18 years, respectively, and compared with matched term-born controls. Single-breath D LCO was measured at two oxygen pressures, with subcomponents (membrane diffusion (D M) and pulmonary capillary blood volume (V C)) calculated using the Roughton-Forster equation. RESULTS: Age-, sex- and height-standardised transfer coefficients for carbon monoxide (K CO) and D LCO were reduced in EP compared with term-born subjects, and remained so during puberty and early adulthood (p-values for all time-points and both cohorts ≤0.04), whereas alveolar volume (V A) was similar. Development occurred in parallel to term-born controls, with no signs of pubertal catch-up growth nor decline at age 25 years (p-values for lack of parallelism within cohorts 0.99, 0.65, 0.71, 0.94 and 0.44 for z-D LCO, z-V A, z-K CO, D M and V C, respectively). Split by membrane and blood volume components, findings were less clear; however, membrane diffusion seemed most affected. CONCLUSIONS: Pulmonary diffusing capacity was reduced in EP compared with term-born subjects, and development from childhood to adulthood tracked in parallel to term-born subjects, with no signs of catch-up growth nor decline at age 25 years.

Conundrums in the breathless athlete; exercise-induced laryngeal obstruction or asthma?

PURPOSE: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) and exercise-induced laryngeal obstruction (EILO) are the two disorders commonly considered when athletes complain of exertional dyspnea. They are highly different but often confused. We aimed to address this diagnostic challenge and its consequences in elite athletes. METHODS: We included all athletes competing at national or international level, referred to our institution for workup for EILO during 2013-2016. We diagnosed EILO from video-recorded laryngoscopy performed during maximal cardiopulmonary treadmill exercise (CLE test). Symptoms and previous diagnostic evaluations were obtained from referral letters and chart reviews. RESULTS: Exercise-induced laryngeal obstruction was diagnosed in 73/101 referred athletes, of whom 70/73 had moderate/severe supraglottic obstruction and 3/73 had primarily glottic obstruction with only minor supraglottic involvement. Of the 73 athletes with EILO, we were able to identify objective tests for asthma in 55 participants, of whom 22 had findings supporting asthma. However, 58/73 had used asthma therapy at some time previously, with current use in 28. Only three reported that asthma medication had improved their exercise-related breathing problems, two of whom with tests confirming asthma. Treatment for EILO improved breathing problems in all but four. CONCLUSIONS: Objective testing verified EILO in most of the referred athletes. EILO coexisting with asthma was common, and large proportions had used asthma medication; however, few reported effect on exercise-related breathing problems. Unexplained persistent exertional dyspnea must not lead to indiscriminate escalation of asthma treatment, but instead incite investigation for EILO, either as a co-morbidity or as a differential diagnosis.

Clinical responses following inspiratory muscle training in exercise-induced laryngeal obstruction.

PURPOSE: Exercise-induced laryngeal obstruction (EILO) is relatively common in young people. Treatment rests on poor evidence; however, inspiratory muscle training (IMT) has been proposed a promising strategy. We aimed to assess laryngeal outcomes shortly after IMT, and to compare self-reported symptoms with a control group 4-6 years later. METHODS: Two groups were retrospectively identified from the EILO-register at Haukeland University Hospital, Norway; one group had received only information and breathing advice (IBA), and another additionally IMT (IBA + IMT). At diagnosis, all participants performed continuous laryngoscopy during exercise (CLE), with findings split by glottic and supraglottic scores, and completed a questionnaire mapping exercise-related symptoms. After 2-4 weeks, the IBA + IMT-group was re-evaluated with CLE-test. After 4-6 years, both groups were re-assessed with a questionnaire. RESULTS: We identified 116 eligible patients from the EILO-register. Response rates after 4-6 years were 23/58 (40%) and 32/58 (55%) in the IBA and IBA + IMT-group, respectively. At diagnosis, both groups rated symptoms similarly, but laryngeal scores were higher in the IBA + IMT-group (P = 0.003). After 2-4 weeks, 23/32 in the IBA + IMT-group reported symptom improvements, associated with a decrease of mainly glottic scores (1.7-0.3; P < 0.001), contrasting unchanged scores in the 9/32 without symptom improvements. After 4-6 years, exercise-related symptoms and activity levels had decreased to similar levels in both groups, with no added benefit from IMT; however, full symptom resolution was reported by only 8/55 participants. CONCLUSION: Self-reported EILO symptoms had improved after 4-6 years, irrespective of initial treatment. Full symptom resolution was rare, suggesting individual follow-up should be offered.

Left vocal cord paralysis after patent ductus arteriosus ligation: A systematic review.

CONTEXT: Extremely premature (EP) infants are at increased risk of left vocal cord paralysis (LVCP) following surgery for patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). OBJECTIVE: A Systematical Review was conducted to investigate the incidence and outcomes of LVCP after PDA ligation in EP born infants. DATA SOURCES: Searches were performed in Cochrane, Medline, Embase, Cinahl and PsycInfo. STUDY SELECTION: Studies describing EP infants undergoing PDA surgery and reporting incidence of LVCP were included. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Study details, demographics, incidence of LVCP, diagnostic method and reported outcomes were extracted. DerSimonian and Laird random effect models with inverse variance weighting were used for all analyses. STUDY APPRAISAL: The Newcastle-Ottawa scale for observational studies was used for quality assessment. RESULTS: 21 publications including 2067 infants were studied. The overall pooled summary estimate of LVCP incidence was 9.0% (95% CI 5.0, 15.0). However, the pooled incidence increased to 32% when only infants examined with laryngoscopy were included. The overall risk ratio for negative outcomes was higher in the LVCP group (2.20, 95% CI 1.69, 2.88, p = 0.01) compared to the non-LVCP-group. CONCLUSIONS: Reported incidence of LVCP varies widely. This may be explained by differences in study designs and lack of routine vocal cords postoperative assessment. LVCP is associated with negative outcomes in EP infants. The understanding of long-term outcomes is scarce. Routine laryngoscopy may be necessary to identify all cases of LVCP, and to provide correct handling for infants with LVCP.

Laryngeal response patterns influence the efficacy of mechanical assisted cough in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Most patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are treated with mechanical insufflation-exsufflation (MI-E) in order to improve cough. This method often fails in ALS with bulbar involvement, allegedly due to upper-airway malfunction. We have studied this phenomenon in detail with laryngoscopy to unravel information that could lead to better treatment. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 20 patients with ALS and 20 healthy age-matched and sex-matched volunteers. We used video-recorded flexible transnasal fibre-optic laryngoscopy during MI-E undertaken according to a standardised protocol, applying pressures of ±20 to ±50 cm H2O. Laryngeal movements were assessed from video files. ALS type and characteristics of upper and lower motor neuron symptoms were determined. RESULTS: At the supraglottic level, all patients with ALS and bulbar symptoms (n=14) adducted their laryngeal structures during insufflation. At the glottic level, initial abduction followed by subsequent adduction was observed in all patients with ALS during insufflation and exsufflation. Hypopharyngeal constriction during exsufflation was observed in all subjects, most prominently in patients with ALS and bulbar symptoms. Healthy subjects and patients with ALS and no bulbar symptoms (n=6) coordinated their cough well during MI-E. CONCLUSIONS: Laryngoscopy during ongoing MI-E in patients with ALS and bulbar symptoms revealed laryngeal adduction especially during insufflation but also during exsufflation, thereby severely compromising the size of the laryngeal inlet in some patients. Individually customised settings can prevent this and thereby improve and extend the use of non-invasive MI-E.

Exercise inducible laryngeal obstruction: diagnostics and management.

Obstruction of the central airways is an important cause of exercise-induced inspiratory symptoms (EIIS) in young and otherwise healthy individuals. This is a large, heterogeneous and vastly understudied group of patients. The symptoms are too often confused with those of asthma. Laryngoscopy performed as symptoms evolve during increasing exercise is pivotal, since the larynx plays an important role in symptomatology for the majority. Abnormalities vary between patients, and laryngoscopic findings are important for correct treatment and handling. The simplistic view that all EIIS is due to vocal cord dysfunction [VCD] still hampers science and patient management. Causal mechanisms are poorly understood. Most treatment options are based on weak evidence, but most patients seem to benefit from individualised information and guidance. The place of surgery has not been settled, but supraglottoplasty may cure well-defined severe cases. A systematic clinical approach, more and better research and randomised controlled treatment trials are of utmost importance in this field of respiratory medicine.

Adolescents who were born extremely preterm demonstrate modest decreases in exercise capacity.

AIM: We aimed to investigate exercise capacity in adolescents who were born extremely preterm and to study changes through puberty and associations with neonatal data, exercise habits and lung function. METHODS: This Norwegian population-based controlled cohort study focused on all infants (n = 35) born at a gestational age of ≤ 28 weeks or with a birthweight of ≤ 1000 grams in 1991-1992, together with matched term-born controls. Participants underwent spirometry and a maximal cardiopulmonary treadmill exercise test at 10 and 18 years. RESULTS: At 18 years of age, mean (95% confidence interval) peak oxygen consumption (peak VO2 ) was 42.3 (39.2-45.4) vs 45.3 (41.3-49.3) mL/kg/min in the preterm- and term-born groups, while the completed treadmill distance was 915 (837-992) vs 1017 (912-1122) metres. Peak VO2 was unrelated to neonatal factors and current lung function. Changes between 10 and 18 were similar in the two groups, and positive associations between exercise habits and peak VO2 developed during the period. CONCLUSION: Exercise capacity was modestly reduced in adolescents born extremely preterm, but the values were considered normal in most participants. Changes during puberty were similar to those observed for term controls, and the findings suggest similar trainability.

Larynx during exercise: the unexplored bottleneck of the airways.

Exercise-induced shortness of breath is not uncommon in otherwise healthy young people. Based on the presenting symptoms alone, it is challenging to distinguish exercise-induced asthma (EIA) from exercise-induced obstruction of central airways, sometimes leading to diagnostic errors and inadequate treatment. Central airway obstruction usually presents with exercise-induced inspiratory symptoms (EIIS) during ongoing exercise. EIIS tends to peak towards the end of an exercise session or immediately after its completion, contradicting symptoms of EIA typically peaking 3-15 min after the exercise has stopped. EIIS is usually associated with some form of laryngeal obstruction. Transnasal flexible laryngoscopy performed continuously throughout an incremental exercise test from rest to exhaustion or to intolerable symptoms is usually diagnostic, and also provides information that is important for further handling and treatment. Reflecting the complex anatomy and functional features of the larynx, exercise-induced laryngeal obstruction (EILO) appears to be a heterogeneous condition. Contradicting previous beliefs, recent literature suggests that laryngeal adduction in a majority of cases starts in supraglottic structures and that vocal cord adduction (VCD) most often occurs as a secondary phenomenon. However, EILO is poorly understood and more and better research is needed to unravel causal mechanisms. The evidence base for treatment of EILO is weak. Speech therapy, psychotherapy, biofeedback, muscle training, anticholinergic aerosols have all been applied, as has laser supraglottoplasty. Randomized controlled trials with well-defined and verifiable inclusion and success criteria are required to establish evidence-based treatment schemes.

A speech therapy treatment protocol for exercise induced laryngeal obstruction.

Background: Exercise induced laryngeal obstruction (EILO) is a common cause of exertional breathing problems in young individuals, relevant to 5%-7% of young people. It is caused by paradoxical inspiratory adduction of laryngeal structures and diagnosed by continuous visualization of the larynx during high intensity exercise. Empirical data suggest that EILO consists of different subtypes that require different therapeutic approaches. Currently applied treatment approaches do not rest on randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and thus evidence-based guidelines cannot be established. This protocol describes the speech therapy treatment approach which is applied to EILO patients in a large prospective RCT called HelpILO. Methods and analysis: Consenting patients consecutively diagnosed with EILO at Haukeland University Hospital are randomized into four treatment arms. Speech therapy is represented in two of these, provided in a structured manner based on general speech therapy principles and abdominal breathing, combined with experience obtained with these patients at our hospital during the last decades. The main outcome measure of HelpILO is changes of laryngoscopically visualized laryngeal adduction, rated at peak exercise before vs. after interventions, using a validated scoring system. Ethics and dissemination: Despite widespread use of speech therapy in patients with EILO, this approach is insufficiently tested in RCTs, and the study is therefore considered ethically appropriate. The study will provide knowledge listed as a priority in a recent statement issued by major respiratory and laryngological societies and requested by clinicians and researchers engaged in this area. The results will be presented at relevant conferences, patient fora, and media platforms, and published in relevant peer reviewed international journals.

When Art Meets Medicine: Use of Flexible Laryngoscopy in Development of Singers' Voices-A Scoping Review.

AIM: To describe what is known from scientific literature on the use of laryngoscopy to enhance singing pedagogy and foster improvements in vocal development. DESIGN: The scoping review methodological framework by Arksey and O'Malley was used. REVIEW METHODS: A systematic search was conducted and peer-reviewed scientific papers were screened through the Rayyan software. Data were extracted and synthesized thematically as narrative text. DATA SOURCES: Searches were carried out on January 2023 in the Web of Science, MEDLINE, PsychINFO, ERIC, Scopus, Google Scholar, Embase and Academic Search Elite databases using relevant keywords to capture evidence, limited to peer-reviewed scientific papers in Nordic or English language. RESULTS: A total of 1413 studies were screened and assessed for eligibility. Two studies met the inclusion criteria reporting results on the use of laryngoscope in development of singers' voices. Different designs were applied and the charted data characteristics varied. Two populations were explored; one cohort of trained professional female musical theater singers and one cohort of students (both sexes) recruited from a music school. Results from examinations with laryngoscopy regarding vowel quality, register quality, anterior-posterior compression scores, and maximum phonation time are presented. None of the retrieved studies aimed to apply laryngoscopy to enhance singing pedagogy. CONCLUSION: Use of laryngoscopy to enable the singer to directly see their song instrument in order to foster improvements in vocal development, have been subject to little exploration. Only two studies were retrieved in our systematic search, none aimed to study potential pedagogical aspects of applying laryngoscopy. These findings support further investigation of the users', especially singers' and voice teachers' perspective, to guide and inform best practice for use of laryngoscopy as a pedagogical tool in a song development context.

Laryngeal response to high-intensity exercise in healthy athletes.

Introduction: Exercise-induced laryngeal obstruction (EILO) is a common cause of exertional breathing problems. The current diagnostic approach rests on evaluation of laryngeal obstruction visualised by laryngoscopy performed continuously throughout a maximal exercise test (continuous laryngoscopy exercise (CLE) test) in patients who present with compatible symptoms. Laryngeal responses to high-intensity exercise in endurance athletes are not well described, potentially leading to inaccurate reference values and increasing the risk of misdiagnosing EILO. Aim: To investigate laryngeal responses to high-intensity exercise in a healthy population of endurance athletes with no self-reported perception of respiratory problems. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway, inviting amateur and professional athletes with no self-reported breathing problems who performed endurance training minimum four sessions weekly. Thirty-six eligible athletes completed a questionnaire detailing exercise habits and past and current respiratory symptoms. They performed a standardised CLE test from which cardiopulmonary exercise data and corresponding laryngeal responses were recorded. The CLE tests were evaluated in retrospect by two independent raters according to preset criteria providing a CLE score. The CLE score rates the severity of laryngeal obstruction during moderate and maximum exercise on the glottic and supraglottic regions on a scale ranging from 0 (no obstruction) to 3 (maximum obstruction). Results: Twenty-nine (81%) athletes (15 females) aged 15-35 years completed a CLE test. Ten participants (33%) had a supraglottic CLE subscore of 2 or 3. Among these, two also had a glottic CLE subscore of 2 or 3. Notably, none had isolated glottic obstruction. Conclusion: In healthy well-trained endurance athletes with no prior perception of respiratory symptoms, the laryngeal response to high-intensity exercise was diverse. Supraglottic laryngeal obstruction was observed in one-third of the athletes. The findings underline that a diagnosis of EILO should rest on observed laryngeal obstruction supported by compatible symptoms.

Upper Airway and Translaryngeal Resistance During Mechanical Insufflation-Exsufflation.

BACKGROUND: Mechanical insufflation-exsufflation (MI-E) uses positive and negative pressures to assist weak cough and to help clear airway secretions. Laryngeal visualization during MI-E has revealed that inappropriate upper airway responses can impede its efficacy. However, the dynamics of pressure transmission in the upper airways during MI-E are unclear, as are the relationships among anatomic structure, pressure, and airflow. RESEARCH QUESTION: Can airflow resistance through the upper airway and the larynx feasibly be calculated during MI-E, and if so, how are the pressures transmitted to the trachea? STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Cross-sectional study of 10 healthy adults with and without active cough to whom MI-E was provided, using pressure settings +20/-40 cm H2O and ± 40 cm H2O. Airflow and pressure at the level of the facemask were measured using a pneumotachograph, whereas pressure transducers (positioned via transnasal fiber-optic laryngoscopy) recorded pressures above the larynx and within the trachea. Upper airway resistance (Ruaw) and translaryngeal resistance (Rtl) were calculated (in centimeters of water per liter per second) and were compared with direct observations via laryngoscopy. RESULTS: Positive pressures reached the trachea effectively, whereas negative tracheal pressures during exsufflation were approximately half of the intended settings. Insufflation pressure increased slightly when passing through the larynx. Participant effort influenced tracheal pressures and the resistances, with findings consistent with laryngoscopic observations. During MI-E, resistance seems to be dynamic, with Ruaw exceeding Rtl. Inappropriate laryngeal closure increased Rtl during both positive and negative pressures. INTERPRETATION: Ruaw and Rtl can be calculated feasibly during MI-E. The findings indicate different transmission dynamics for positive and negative pressures and that resistances are influenced by participant effort. The findings support using lower insufflation pressures and higher negative pressures in clinical practice.

Lung function after preterm birth: development from mid-childhood to adulthood.

BACKGROUND: As a result of advances in perinatal care, more small preterm infants survive. There are concerns that preterm birth and its treatments may harm pulmonary development and thereby lead to chronic airway obstruction in adulthood. OBJECTIVE: To assess the development of spirometric lung function variables from mid-childhood to adulthood after extreme preterm birth. METHODS: Two population-based cohorts born at gestational age ≤28 weeks or with birth weight ≤1000 g performed lung function tests at 10 and 18 and at 18 and 25 years of age, respectively, together with matched term-born controls. The results are presented as z scores, normalised for age, sex and height. Longitudinal development was compared for groups born at term and preterm, split by a history of absence (n=20), mild (n=38) or moderate/severe (n=25) neonatal bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). RESULTS: The preterm-born cohorts, particularly those with neonatal BPD, had significantly lower forced expiratory volume in 1 s and mid-expiratory flow than those born at term at all assessments (z scores in the range -0.40 to -1.84). Within each of the subgroups the mean z scores obtained over the study period were largely similar, coefficients of determination ranging from 0.64 to 0.82. The pattern of development for the BPD subgroups did not differ from each other or from the groups born at term (tests of interaction). CONCLUSIONS: Airway obstruction was present from mid-childhood to adulthood after extreme preterm birth, most evident after neonatal BPD. Lung function indices were tracking similarly in the preterm and term-born groups.