Caregivers' experiences of accessing HIV Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) services and its barriers and facilitators, India.

BACKGROUND: India has rolled out Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) program for HIV infection in all states. EID program consists of testing of Infants exposed to HIV periodically over 18 months of age which is a multi-step complex testing cascade. Caregivers represent the primary beneficiary of EID program i.e., infants exposed to HIV and face multiple challenges to access EID services. As part of national EID program outcome assessment study, this study narrates caregivers' perspectives on barriers and facilitators to access and utilize EID services. METHODS: The study was conducted in 31 integrated counselling and testing centres (ICTCs) located in 11 high burden HIV states. A total of 66 in-depth interviews were conducted with caregivers' of infants enrolled in EID program. Thematic analysis was carried out to help identify themes underlying barriers and facilitators to access EID services and utilization from caregivers' perspectives. RESULTS: The stigma and discrimination prevalent in society about HIV remains a key demand side (caregiver-level) barrier. Non-disclosure or selective disclosure of HIV status led to missed or delayed EID tests and delayed HIV diagnosis and initiation of Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART) for infants exposed to HIV. On supply side (health system-level), accessibility of healthcare facility with EID services was reported as a key barrier. The distance, time and cost were key concerns. Many caregivers faced difficulties to remember the details of complex EID test schedule and relied on a phone call from ICTC counsellor for next due EID test. Delayed EID test results and lack of communication of test results to caregiver were reported as primary barriers for completing the EID test cascade. DISCUSSION: The study reports caregiver-level and health system-level barriers and facilitators for access to EID services from the caregivers' perspectives. While, decentralisation and single window approaches can improve the access, timely communication of test results to the caregiver also need to be built in with appropriate use of technology. A holistic intervention including PLHIV support networks and the peer-led support mechanisms would be useful to address societal factors. CONCLUSION: The study findings have high significance for developing program implementation strategies to improve access and to build right-based and patient-centred EID services.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus Preexposure Prophylaxis Awareness and Acceptability among Men Who Have Sex with Men and Transgender Persons in India: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

With increasing importance being given to preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for human immunodeficiency virus prevention among men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender persons (TG), we undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of PrEP awareness and acceptability among these key populations in India, and their sociodemographic and behavioral determinants. The systematic review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42023390508). Studies were included if they provided quantitative data on PrEP awareness or acceptability among MSM or TG in India. MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase were searched from inception to February 29, 2024, using keywords and database-specific terms. Relevant websites were also searched. Critical appraisal was done using the Joanna Briggs Institute Checklist for Prevalence Studies. Random-effects meta-analysis was done for common outcomes reported by the studies. Reporting was as per the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses 2020 statement. Ten studies providing cross-sectional data, mostly from South West India, were included for qualitative synthesis. All were conducted in settings where PrEP was not available. The pooled prevalence among MSM and TG was 18.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] 8.7%, 28.7%) for awareness and 79.8% (95% CI 57.4%, 100.0%) for willingness to use daily oral PrEP. This review highlights the felt need for PrEP among MSM and TG in India. Further research is needed to understand user attitudes in different parts of the country.

Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on HIV Testing Uptake Among Key Populations Enrolled in Targeted Intervention Program in Maharashtra, India.

The COVID-19 pandemic posed unprecedented challenges to HIV services globally. We evaluated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the uptake of HIV testing in the Targeted Intervention (TI) program in Maharashtra-a high HIV burden state in India. Annual HIV testing was sustained during the pandemic year (2020-2021), at levels similar to the pre-pandemic year (2019-2020), among Female Sex Workers (FSW), Men having Sex with Men (MSM), Transgender (TG), and Truckers; but not among Migrants and Intravenous Drug Users (IDU). There was an acute decline during the lockdown across all typologies. Sharp recovery was seen among FSW, MSM, and TG during the early months of the un-lockdown. The community-based screening (CBS) approach primarily contributed to this recovery. Among migrants and truckers, recovery was delayed. There was an overall reduction of 58% in annual HIV-positive registrations. The community-based networks, participatory structures, and processes of HIV programs played an essential role in reaching the community during the pandemic.

Injecting drug use & HIV prevalence among female sex workers: Evidence from the National Integrated Biological & Behavioural Surveillance, India.

Background & objectives: Female sex workers (FSWs) who inject drugs (FSW-IDs) have a higher risk of HIV infection and transmission. Understanding the socio-demographic characteristics and other risk behaviours among FSW-IDs will help in strengthening targeted interventions for HIV prevention and management. In the present study, the HIV prevalence, associated socio-demographic characteristics and risk behaviours among FSWs who injected drugs (FSW-IDs) and those who did not ID (FSW-NIDs) was determined in India. Methods: The national cross-sectional, community-based, integrated biological and behavioural surveillance was conducted in 2014-2015 at 73 randomly selected FSW domains across 28 States and Union Territories in India. The sample size was fixed at 400 for each domain, and a probability-based sampling method was followed. The data were analyzed by logistic regression methods. Results: Data from 27,007 FSWs were included in the analysis, of which 802 (3%) were FSW-IDs. HIV prevalence among FSW-IDs was significantly higher than that in FSW-NIDs (4.5 vs. 1.9%). Univariate analysis showed that factors significantly associated with higher HIV prevalence among FSW-IDs were older age, sex work as the only source of income, dissolved marriage, living with a sex worker, urban locality of sex work and consumption of alcohol or oral drugs. In multivariable analysis, factors such as older age of FSW-IDs (35 yr and above), having a dissolved marriage and sex work being the only source of income were observed to be independently and significantly associated with higher HIV prevalence. Interpretation & conclusions: Scaling up the HIV preventive interventions for FSW-IDs, such as facilitating awareness and improved access to needle and syringe exchange programme (NSEP) and opioid substitution therapy (OST), encouraging safe sex and injecting practices, educating on the harmful effects of alcohol and drugs and providing alternative vocation options to secure their financial needs are several strategies that may reduce HIV transmission among FSWs.

Comparison of prevention of parent-to-child HIV transmission programme & national biennial HIV sentinel surveillance data for tracking HIV epidemic in India.

Background & objectives: HIV sentinel surveillance (HSS) among antenatal women in India has been used to track the epidemic for many years. However, reliable tracking at the local level is not possible as ANC sentinel sites are limited in number and cover a smaller sample size at each site. Prevention of parent-to-child-transmission (PPTCT) programme data has a potential advantage due to better geographical coverage, which could provide more precise HIV case estimates; therefore, we compared HSS ANC data with PPTCT programme data for HIV tracking. Methods: Out of the 499 surveillance sites, where HSS and PPTCT programme was being conducted in 2015, 210 sites (140 urban and 70 rural) were selected using a stratified random sampling method. HSS (n=72,981) and PPTCT (n=112,832) data records were linked confidentially. The sociodemographic characteristics of HSS and PPTCT attendees were compared. HIV prevalence from HSS ANC was compared with the PPTCT programme data using Chi-square test. State- and site-level correlation of HIV prevalence was also done. Concordance between HSS and PPTCT HIV positivity was estimated using kappa statistics. Results: The age distribution of HSS and PPTCT attendees was similar (range: 23 to 27 yr); however, HSS ANC participants were better educated, whereas PPTCT recorded a higher proportion of homemakers. The correlation of HIV prevalence between HSS and PPTCT was high (r=0.9) at the State level and moderate at the site level (r=0.7). The HIV positivity agreement between HSS ANC and PPTCT was good (kappa=0.633). A similar prevalence was reported across 26 States, whereas PPTCT had a significantly lower prevalence than HSS in three States where PPTCT coverage was low. Overall HIV prevalence was 0.31 per cent in HSS and 0.22 per cent in PPTCT (P<0.001). Interpretation & conclusions: High-quality PPTCT programme data can provide reliable HIV trends in India. An operational framework for PPTCT-based surveillance should be pilot-tested in a phased manner before replacing HSS with PPTCT.

A national level estimation of population need for blood in India.

BACKGROUND: The population need for blood is the total volume required to transfuse all the individuals who need transfusion in a defined population over a defined period. The clinical demand will arise when people with a disease or condition who require transfusion, access healthcare services, and subsequently the clinicians request blood. Essentially, the conversion of need to demand must be maximum to avoid preventable mortality and morbidity. The study estimated the population need for blood in India. METHODS: The methodology included a comprehensive literature review to determine the diseases and conditions requiring transfusion, the population at risk, and prevalence or incidence; and Delphi method to estimate the percentage of people requiring transfusion, and the quantum. RESULTS: The estimated annual population need was 26.2 million units (95% CI; 17.9-38.0) of whole blood to address the need for red cells and other components after the separation process. The need for medical conditions was 11.0 million units (95% CI:8.7-14.7), followed by surgery 6.6 million (95% CI:3.8-10.0), pediatrics 5.0 million (95% CI:3.5-7.0), and obstetrics and gynecology 3.6 million units (95% CI:1.9-6.2). The gap between need and demand which depends upon the access and efficiency of healthcare service provision was estimated at 13 million units. CONCLUSION: The study brings evidence to highlight the gap between need and demand and the importance of addressing it. It cannot be just the responsibility of blood transfusion or health systems, it requires a multi-sectoral approach to address the barriers affecting the conversion of need to clinical demand for blood.

High IL-5 levels possibly contributing to HIV viremia in virologic non-responders at one year after initiation of anti-retroviral therapy.

Lack of viral monitoring in HIV infected patients on anti-retroviral therapy in low income countries may result in missing virologic non-responders (VNR) who show immunologic recovery in spite of unsuppressed viral replication. Biomarkers and drug resistance patterns in these discordant patients in comparison to the concordant treatment failure group need to be studied to understand possible risk factors associated with this condition. HIV infected patients on anti-retroviral therapy for one year were enrolled under three categories namely VNRs (n = 25), treatment failures (n = 18) and treatment responders (n = 40). They were assessed for HIV drug resistance by sequencing, plasma cytokines by luminex assay, T cell activation status by flow cytometry and total IgE levels by ELISA. VNR and failure patients had significantly lower median baseline CD4 counts than the responders. VNRs had significantly higher CD4 counts but lower viral load than treatment failures at one year of ART. VNRs had the highest eosinophil counts and the highest IL-5 levels among all the groups. IL-5 levels in them correlated with their viral load values. Frequency of Treg cells was also highest among the VNR group participants. More than 60% of the viremic patients irrespective of their groups harboured multiple HIV drug resistance mutations and mutation pattern did not differ between the groups. Low baseline CD4 counts and presence of multiple drug resistance mutations in the viremic groups highlighted the importance of early ART initiation and viral load monitoring irrespective of presence of immunologic failure. High IL-5 levels in VNR group indicated a need for investigating causal relationship between IL-5 and viral replication to devise therapeutic strategies to control viremia.

Possible role of plasma Galectin-9 levels as a surrogate marker of viremia in HIV infected patients on antiretroviral therapy in resource-limited settings.

BACKGROUND: Early detection of viremia in HIV infected patients on anti-retroviral therapy (ART) is important to prevent disease progression as well as accumulation of drug resistance mutations. This makes HIV viral load (VL) monitoring indispensable in HIV infected patients on ART. However VL, being an expensive test, results in heavy financial burden on health services. Hence, cheaper surrogate markers of viremia are desired to reduce overall cost of management of HIV infected patients. METHODS: We enrolled aviremic (n = 63, M:F = 31:32) and viremic (n = 43, M:F = 21:22) HIV infected patients at 1 year after ART initiation. Viremic individuals were identified as those having a plasma VL of more than 1000 copies/µl and aviremic individuals as less than 40 copies/µl. The study participants also included immuno-virologically discordant patients as they demonstrate differential degrees of immune-reconstitution and are likely to harbour concomitant infections influencing levels of immune-activation markers screened as the surrogate markers. Immune activation markers viz. plasma hs-CRP, soluble-CD14 and Galectin-9 levels were estimated by ELISA, IL-6 by luminex assay and percentages of CD38+ CD8+ cells were determined by flow cytometry. The levels were compared between viremic and aviremic patients and correlated with plasma viral load. Receiver operated curve (ROC) analysis was done for plasma Galectin-9 levels. RESULTS: Viremic patients had significantly higher levels of Galectin-9 and %CD38+ CD8+ cells (p values < 0.0001) than aviremic patients. Levels of the other activation markers did not differ between viremic and aviremic individuals. Galectin-9 levels (r = 0.76) and %CD38+ CD8+ cells (r = 0.39) correlated positively with VL. Area under curve for Galectin-9 levels for distinguishing between viremic and aviremic individuals was 0.98. Youden index, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value for Galectin-9 levels were 0.87, 0.97, 0.90, 0.87 and 0.98, respectively, at the cut-off value of 5.79 ng/ml. CONCLUSIONS: Plasma Galectin-9 levels could identify viremic individuals with sensitivity and specificity of more than 90%. Thus, they showed a potential to serve as a surrogate marker of viremia in HIV infected patients on ART and would have cost implications on HIV management especially in resource-limited settings. However, the findings need to be confirmed in the patients on ART for different durations of time.

Findings from the 2017 HIV estimation round & trend analysis of key indicators 2010-2017: Evidence for prioritising HIV/AIDS programme in India.

Background & objectives: The National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and the ICMR-National Institute of Medical Statistics, the nodal agency for conducting HIV estimations in India, have been generating HIV estimates regularly since 2003. The objective of this study was to describe India's biennial HIV estimation 2017 process, data inputs, tool, methodology and epidemiological assumptions used to generate the HIV estimates and trends of key indicators for 2010-2017 at national and State/Union Territory levels. Methods: Demographic Projection (DemProj) and AIDS Impact Modules (AIM) of Spectrum 5.63 software recommended by the United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS Global Reference Group on HIV Estimates, Modelling and Projections, were used for generating HIV estimations on key indicators. HIV sentinel surveillance, epidemiological and programme data were entered into Estimation Projection Package (EPP), and curve fitting was done using EPP classic model. Finally, calibration was done using the State HIV prevalence of two rounds of National Family Health Survey (NFHS) -3 and -4 and Integrated Biological and Behavioural Surveillance (IBBS), 2014-2015. Results: The national adult prevalence of HIV was estimated to be 0.22 per cent in 2017. Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland had the highest prevalence over one per cent. An estimated 2.1 million people were living with HIV in 2017, with Maharashtra estimated to have the highest number. Of the 88 thousand annual new HIV infections estimated nationally in 2017, Telangana accounted for the largest share. HIV incidence was found to be higher among key population groups, especially people who inject drugs. The annual AIDS-related deaths were estimated to be 69 thousand nationally. For all indicators, geographic variation in levels and trends between States existed. Interpretation & conclusions: With a slow decline in annual new HIV infections by only 27 per cent from 2010 to 2017 against the national target of 75 per cent by 2020, the national target to end AIDS by 2030 may be missed; although at the sub-national level some States have made better progress to reduce new HIV infection. It calls for reinforcement of HIV prevention, diagnosis and treatment efforts by geographical regions and population groups.

HIV/AIDS-Related risk behaviors, HIV prevalence, and determinants for HIV prevalence among hijra/transgender people in India: Findings from the 2014-2015 integrated biological and behavioural surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Hijra or transgender (H/TG) people are significantly affected by HIV in India. HIV prevalence among H/TG is the second highest after people who inject drugs. Effective interventions require understanding about various risk behaviors and associated factors for high prevalence. OBJECTIVES: This study analyzes the known risk behaviors and vulnerabilities of HIV-positive and HIV-negative H/TG people to identify the determinants of HIV seropositivity in this high-risk group. METHODS: Using secondary data from India's 2014 to 2015 Integrated Biological and Behavioural Surveillance survey, this analysis was conducted among 3325 H/TG people across seven states. Probability-based sampling methods were used to recruit H/TG people. Informed consent was obtained for the collection of behavioral information and blood samples for HIV testing. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was undertaken to identify the determinants of HIV seropositivity. RESULTS: HIV prevalence for this group of respondents was 9.5%. Multivariable analysis of survey data revealed higher odds of HIV infection if H/TG had regular male partners (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 1.81, confidence interval [CI]: 1.07-3.06), were living in the states of Maharashtra (AOR: 6.08, CI: 3.02-12.22) and Odisha (AOR: 2.91, CI: 1.05-8.06), and were members of self-help groups (AOR: 2.08, CI: 1.04-4.14). None of the demographic or behavioral correlates of risk were found to be associated with HIV infection. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that community and structural factors, which are inadequately covered in surveys such as IBBS, play a more important role than individual behavioral factors.

Aging of HIV epidemic in India: Insights from HIV estimation modeling under the national aids control programme.

People living with HIV are gradually getting older as a result of better survival with increased uptake of antiretroviral treatment in India. We aimed to quantify the aging HIV-infected population in India by undertaking a mathematical model analysis of 2017 rounds of HIV burden estimations under the National AIDS Control Programme. Our analysis projects that the mean age of HIV-infected people will increase from 38.4 years in 2005 to 45.5 years in 2025 with the proportion of HIV-infected people aged 50 years or older increasing from 19% in 2005 to 37% in 2025. This aging HIV epidemic is anticipated to lead to more non-AIDS morbidities, increased treatment complexity, and an inevitable need for multidisciplinary health-care services to ensure continued high-quality survival.

Human immunodeficiency virus prevalence and high-risk behavior of home-based and nonhome-based female sex workers in three high-prevalent North-Eastern States of India.

BACKGROUND: Female sex workers (FSWs) have been identified as an important target group for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/sexually transmitted infections prevention. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to describe sociodemographic and sex work characteristics and to identify the risk factors for HIV infection with special focus on the variations between home-based (HB) and non-HB (NHB) FSWs in three high-prevalent North-Eastern states of India: Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland. METHODS: Data from the National Integrated Bio-Behavioural Surveillance (IBBS) conducted in India during 2014-2015 were utilized in the study. IBBS is a quantitative survey conducted among identified high risk sub within India. Logistic regression analyses were performed using SAS 9.3.2 to determine the distribution and associations of sociodemographics and risk behaviors with HIV seropositivity of HB and NHB FSWs. RESULTS: HIV prevalence was found higher among NHB FSWs compared to HB FSW (7.3% vs. 4.6%). The proportions of FSW among HB (66.7%) were in sex work for longer duration are significantly higher than for NHB (60.2%) while risk of HIV infection due to injecting drug use was higher in NHB FSW (11.7% vs. 8.7%). Reference to FSW who were currently married, those who were widowed/divorced/separated had 2.73-fold risk of HIV. FSW who did not have any other income source were associated with 1.73 times more risk of HIV infection. Injecting drugs user among FSW respondents had four times higher likelihood to be HIV positive. CONCLUSION: A substantial proportion of NHB FSWs is mobile in nature. Targeted interventions are required urgently to minimize HIV risk among those FSWs especially the widowed/divorced/separated, sex work is only income source and who used injecting drugs for nonmedical purpose.

Did Inclusion of informed consent affect the observed hiv prevalence rate among injecting drug users during hiv sentinel surveillance 2017 in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand States of Central Zone of India?

BACKGROUND: In 2017, the sampling procedure for HIV sentinel surveillance (HSS) among all high-risk groups was changed from the consecutive sampling to random sampling along with the introduction of linked anonymous testing strategy with informed written consent. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess whether the inclusion of informed consent affects the HIV positivity rate among the participants and nonparticipants injecting drug users (IDU) in HSS 2017 in four states of Central Zone of India. METHODS: This study was a cross-sectional study. All sentinel sites from Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Uttarakhand located at targeted intervention facilities in 2017 were included in the study. Information about the participation and nonparticipation of each high-risk individual at the sentinel site was gathered from the master list, respective registers, and website portal of the National AIDS Control Organization. A total of 8639 individuals were included in the analysis. RESULTS: Overall, 16 sites in four states were included in the study. Overall, the nonparticipation rate of IDUs was 14.3%; highest being for Delhi (17.2%), followed by Uttar Pradesh (14.6%), Uttarakhand (10.9%), and Jharkhand (4.4%). Overall, the HIV-positivity rate among nonparticipants (9.6%) was significantly higher (P = 0.009) compared to the participants (6.7%). CONCLUSION: Change in methodology and seeking written informed consent might have an effect on the nonparticipation in all four states. This, in turn, could have led to the underestimation of HIV-positivity rates among IDU in the states.

Projected impact of fast-tracking of anti-retroviral treatment coverage on vertical transmission of HIV in India.

One of the five high-level goals under Phase V of the National AIDS and STD Control Programme (NACP) of the Government of India is the elimination of vertical transmission of HIV. In this paper, we estimate the potential impact of maintaining and enhancing the anti-retroviral treatment under the NACP in terms of averting new infections and vertical transmission rates vis-à-vis no intervention scenario. We used India's HIV Estimates 2022 models to create treatment coverage scenarios of no interventions, status quo, business as usual, on-track and fast-track scenarios from 2023 to 2030. Our analysis indicates that fast-tracking scale-up of treatment services would avert almost 41000 child infections from 2023 to 2030 leading to a vertical transmission rate of around 7.70% in 2030 vis-a-vis no interventions scenario. Higher and sustained ART coverage would not only take the country closer to the elimination goals but would also prevent thousands of vertical transmissions, thus bringing a lot of benefits to HIV-positive pregnant women and their families. Supported by efforts for the prevention of new infections in the general population, India is on track for the attainment of elimination of vertical transmission of HIV by 2030.

Acceptability, usability, and willingness to pay for HIV self-test kits distributed through community-based, PLHIV network-led and private practitioners models in India: Results from the STAR III Initiative.

INTRODUCTION: HIV self-testing (HIVST) has been shown to increase the uptake of HIV testing and help achieve the UNAIDS 95-95-95 targets. This study assessed the acceptability, usability (ease of use and result interpretation) and the willingness to pay for HIVST kits distributed through three distribution models, namely the community-based, PLHIV network-led and private practitioners models, in India. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was implemented across 14 states in India between September 2021 and June 2022. All participants could choose between blood-based or oral-fluid-based test kits. Participants were shown a test-kit usage demonstration video, and pre- and post-test counselling was provided for all. Participants were followed-up after testing, and if reported reactive, were further supported for linkage to confirmatory testing and antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation. RESULTS: Among the 90,605 participants found eligible, 88,080 (97%) accepted an HIVST kit. Among the 87,976 who reported using an HIVST kit, 45,207 (51%) preferred a blood-based kit, and 42,120 (48%) reported testing for the first time. For future testing, 77,064 (88%) reported preferring HIVST over other HIV testing methods. Among those who used the kit, 83,308 (95%) found the kit easy to use, and 83,237 (95%) reported that the test results were easy to interpret. Among those who preferred HIVST for future use, 52,136 (69%) were willing to pay for the kit, with 35,854 (69%) of those willing to pay less than US$ 1.20. Only one instance of social harm was reported, with a participant reporting suicidal tendencies due to discord with their partner. Out of 328 participants (0.4%) who tested reactive with HIVST, 291 (89%) were linked to confirmatory testing; of these, 254 were confirmed HIV positive, and 216 (85%) successfully initiated ART. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, we report that nearly all participants were willing to accept HIVST, found the test kits easy to use and interpret, and about two-thirds were willing to pay for HIVST. Given the high levels of acceptance and the ability to reach a large proportion of first-time testers, HIVST in India could contribute to achieving the UNAIDS first 95 and ending the HIV epidemic.

Prevalence and determinants of heterosexual anal-intercourse among female sex workers in India: Findings from nationwide cross-sectional biological and behavioural survey.

BACKGROUND: The vulnerability of female sex workers (FSWs) to HIV infection increases if unprotected heterosexual anal intercourse (HAI) is practiced. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence of HAI among FSWs, and associated factors, and prevalence of consistent condom use (CCU) during HAI and associated factors. METHODS: Analysis of cross-sectional data from nationwide biological and behavioural survey, conducted at 73 randomly selected domains with sample size of 27,000 in India. RESULTS: A total of 25,932 FSWs were included in the analysis, after excluding 1075 (3.9%) FSWs for which the data were incomplete. The prevalence of HAI was 29.9% (95% CI, 29.3, 30.4); The CCU during HAI in the last one month was 58.9%. Younger age at the start of sex work, use of mobile phone/internet for soliciting client, home as a place of sex work, consumption of alcohol/drug, and physical violence against FSWs were associated with higher odds of HAI. Frequent contact with outreach workers, awareness of sexually transmitted infection, and older age at the start of sex work was associated with CCU. CONCLUSION: Prevalence of HAI was high among FSW in India. The national program could target those factors that reduce the odds of HAI and/or promote CCU.

Prevalence of HIV among inmates in four states of north India: findings from the 16th round of HIV sentinel surveillance.

PURPOSE: Prisoners are at a higher risk of HIV infection compared to the general population. The purpose of this study is to estimate the prevalence of HIV and related risk behaviours among inmates of the Central Prisons in four states of North India. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: The HIV sentinel surveillance was conducted in seven Central Prisons in four states of North India from February to April 2019. Four hundred inmates were included from each prison. The interviews were conducted at the Integrated Counselling and Testing Centre located within the prison premises. The Ethics Committee of the National AIDS Control Organization, New Delhi, granted ethical approval before the start of the surveillance. FINDINGS: Overall, 2,721 inmates were enrolled in this study. The mean (SD) age was 38.9 (13.9) years. One-third of prison inmates had comprehensive knowledge about HIV/AIDS. The proportion of convict (54%) and undertrial (46%) inmates was almost equal. The overall prevalence of HIV infection among inmates was 0.96% (95% CI 0.65-1.40). The odds of being HIV positive were significantly higher in never married inmates, undertrials, inmates who were in the prison for more than three months to one year, inmates incarcerated for multiple times, inmates with history of injecting drug use and inmates with history of intercourse with a commercial sex worker. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: The findings from the very first HIV sentinel surveillance in central prisons in North India have been presented in this paper. This has huge implications for future policy decisions.

Low awareness but high acceptability of pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV among men who have sex with men and transgender persons in Delhi, India.

Background: HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is part of India's HIV prevention policy. We aimed to determine awareness of and willingness-to-use PrEP among men-who-have-sex-with-men (MSM) and transgender-persons (TG) in Delhi, India.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at five purposively selected targeted-intervention projects in Delhi. Participants included self-identified MSM/TG aged ≥18 years, with negative/unknown HIV serostatus. A structured interview schedule, developed using formative research, was used. Primary outcomes were awareness of, and willingness-to-use PrEP. Socio-demographic and behaviour variables included age, living situation, education, anal-sex, condom-use and experiences of physical-violence. Determinants of outcome were identified in univariable logistic regression; variables associated at p < .25 were included in multivariable regression models.Results: Of 400 (224 MSM, 176 TG), mean ± SD age 25.7 ± 7.2 years, 14.5% (95% CI 11.0, 18.0) were aware of PrEP, while 63.3% (95% CI: 58.6, 68.1) reported willingness-to-use PrEP. PrEP-awareness was independently associated with formal-education (adjusted odds ratio; AOR = 1.20), professional occupation (AOR = 5.45) and condom-use (AOR = 3.07). Willingness-to-use PrEP was higher if participants had recent anal-sex (AOR = 2.29), had used condoms during anal-sex (AOR = 2.09), or recently experienced physical-violence (AOR = 3.65).Conclusions: PrEP awareness was low, but most were willing to use PrEP, implying that communication is key to PrEP awareness and uptake.

Socio-demographic and behavioural determinants of HIV prevalence among homosexual and bisexual men having sex with men (MSM) in India: Integrated bio-behavioural surveillance.

Background: HIV prevalence among men who have sex with men (MSM) is 16.5 times higher than adult HIV prevalence. With a socio-cultural context that demands marriage, a considerable proportion of MSM in India have female sexual partners and act as a bridge population. Stratified analysis of HIV risk factors among homosexual and bisexual MSM will be instrumental in identifying the high-risk MSM. We aim to identify the socio-demographic and behavioural factors associated with HIV risk among homosexual and bisexual MSM. Methods: Overall, 23081 MSM were enrolled in the IBBS conducted across India between October 2014 and November 2015. Data and blood samples were collected. Chi-square test, univariate and multivariable logistic regression methods were used in data analysis. Results: HIV prevalence was significantly higher among homosexual MSM than bisexual MSM. Older age, lesser education, being a sex worker, being married, living with a male or hijra partner, younger age at initiation of MSM behaviour, duration, injecting drugs, and having STI symptoms were associated with higher prevalence. The prevalence of new homosexual MSM was 11.4%. Nearly 75% of the bisexual MSM reported inconsistent condom usage with female partners. Conclusion: Interventions for early identification of new MSM and advocacy for safe sex with alternative preventive techniques are recommended.

Determinants of Turn-Around-Time for Early Infant Diagnosis of HIV Testing: Retrospective Analysis of National Level PCR Testing Data.

India has been implementing one of the biggest Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) of HIV intervention globally. The turn-around-time (TAT) for EID test is one of the major factors for success of the program. This study was to assess the turnaround time and its determinants. It is a mixed methods study with quantitative analysis of retrospective data (2013-2016) collected from all the 7 Early Infant Diagnosis testing laboratories (called as regional reference laboratories or RRLs) in India and qualitative component that can help explain the determinants of turn-around-time. The retrospective national level data available from the RRLs was analyzed to measure the turn-around-time from the receipt of samples to the dispatch of results and to understand the determinants for the same. The 3 components transport time, testing time, and dispatch time were also calculated. Transport time was analyzed state-wise and the testing time RRL wise to understand disparities, if any. Qualitative interviews with the RRL officials were conducted to understand the underlying determinants of TAT. The Median turn-around-time ranged between 29 and 53 days over the 4 years. Transport time was significantly higher for states without RRL (42 days) than those with RRL (27 days). Testing time varied from RRL to RRL and was associated with incomplete forms, inadequate samples, kits logistics, staff turnover, staff training, and instrument related issues. The TAT is high and can be potentially reduced with interventions, such as decentralization of RRLs; courier systems for sample transport; and ensuring adequate resources at the RRL level.